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learning, attitudes, aggression, and voting habits. This research employs the scientific
Essay
1. What are pseudo-polls? Why are they used?
ANSWER:
Pseudo-polls are typically call-in, online, or person-in–the-street polls that the news
media use to address a “question of the day.” But the National Council on Public
Polls notes that “unscientific pseudo-polls are widespread and sometimes
entertaining, but they never provide the kind of information that belongs in a serious
report,” and discourages news media from conducting them.
2. Name (and briefly explain) two major study conclusions used to discount the magic bullet
theory, also known as the hypodermic-needle model.
ANSWER:
The idea that powerful media can and do affect weak audiences has been labeled the
hypodermic-needle model, sometimes also called the magic bullet theory or the
direct-effects model. It suggests that the media shoot their potent effects directly into
unsuspecting victims.
One study was done on Orson Welles’s legendary October 30, 1938, radio broadcast
of War of the Worlds. The broadcast presented H. G. Wells’s Martian invasion novel
in the form of a news report. Millions of listeners who didn’t realize it was fictional
were terrified. In a 1940 book-length study of the broadcast, The Invasion from
Mars: A Study in the Psychology of Panic, radio researcher Hadley Cantril argued
that, contrary to reactions based on the hypodermic-needle model, not all listeners
thought the radio program was a real news report. Instead, Cantril—after conducting
personal interviews and a nationwide survey of listeners, and analyzing newspaper
reports and listener mail to CBS Radio and the FCC—noted that although some did
believe the radio report to be real, the majority reacted out of collective panic, not out
of a gullible belief in anything transmitted through the media.
3. When studying media effects, which kinds of issues should be looked at?
ANSWER:
Media research can come from the private or public sector, and each type has
distinguishing features. Private research, sometimes called proprietary research, is
conducted for a business, a corporation, or a political campaign. It is usually applied
research in the sense that the information it uncovers typically addresses some real-
life problem or need. Public research, in contrast, usually takes place in academic and
government settings. It involves information that is often more theoretical than
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Chapter 15: Essay
4. What are agenda-setting and the cultivation effect?
ANSWER:
Agenda-setting is a key phenomenon posited by contemporary media effects
researchers. It is the idea that when the mass media focus their attention on particular
events or issues, they determine—that is, set the agenda for—the major topics of
discussion for individuals and society. Essentially, agenda-setting researchers have
argued that the mass media do not so much tell us what to think as what to think
about.
The cultivation effect suggests that heavy viewing of television leads individuals to
perceive the world in ways that are consistent with television portrayals. This area of
media effects research has pushed researchers beyond a focus on how the media
affects individual behavior toward larger ideas about the impact on perception.
5. What is the spiral of silence? In what kinds of circumstances might the theorized effects not
occur?
ANSWER:
Developed by German communication theorist Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann in the
1970s and 1980s, the spiral of silence theory links the mass media, social
psychology, and the formation of public opinion. The theory proposes that those who
believe that their views on controversial issues are in the minority will keep their
views to themselves—that is, become silent—for fear of social isolation. This can
diminish or even silence alternative perspectives. The theory is based on social
psychology studies. According to the theory, the mass media can help create a false,
overrated majority; that is, a true majority of people holding a certain position can
grow silent when they sense an opposing majority in the media. You can see the
spiral of silence in President Donald Trump’s followers. Those who held certain
“politically incorrect” views hid in the shadows until Trump gave them permission to
be vocal through his racist rhetoric. Some people may fail to fall into a spiral of
silence either because they don’t watch or listen to the media or because they
mistakenly perceive that more people hold their position than really do.
6. The media helps make sense of the world. It changes our culture, and we are changed by it.
The media also changes our history, politics, and economics. Provide examples from the
textbook and by searching the web.
ANSWER:
In the United States in the 1960s, an important body of research, loosely labeled
cultural studies, came about to challenge mainstream media effects theories. Since
that time, cultural studies research has focused on how people make meaning,
understand reality, and order experience by using symbols that appear in the media.
For example, the focus on Hillary Clinton’s e-mails changed how the public viewed
her. The way the news outlet shaped the stories had a major impact on the outcome.
Also, many people were influenced by Russian interference in the election through
fake accounts on Facebook and Twitter.
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Chapter 15: Essay
question “defining the scope and problems of American communications research.”
peasants, the working classes, and other minority groups. This critical public debate
led to support for the right to assembly, free speech, and a free press.
Habermas’s research is useful to cultural studies researchers when they consider how
democratic societies and the mass media operate today. According to Habermas, a
democratic society should always work to create the most favorable communication
situation possible—a public sphere. Without an open communication system, there
can be no democratically functioning society. This fundamental idea is the basis for
some arguments on why an open, accessible mass media system is essential.
However, Habermas warned that the mass media could also be an enemy of
democracy; he cautioned modern societies to be aware of the manipulative
deployment of media power to gain mass loyalty, consumer demand, and compliance
with the agenda of those in power.
10. Why might it be important for academic researchers to make the results of their work
accessible to people outside their disciplines and outside academia?
ANSWER:
Academic studies usually fail to address the everyday problems of life. The rise of
mass media departments in colleges and universities has led to an increase in
specialized jargon, which tends to alienate and exclude everyday people. Although
media research has built a growing knowledge base and has profoundly advanced
what we know about the effect of mass media on individuals and societies, the
academic world has also built an obstacle to that knowledge. The masses have been
excluded from access to the research process. Researchers themselves have even
found it difficult to speak to one another across domains because of discipline-
specific language used to analyze and report findings. For example, understanding
the elaborate statistical analyses used to document media effects can require special
training. In some cultural research, the language used is often incomprehensible to
students and to other audiences who use mass media. All of this is to say that you
have to meet the people where they are; you have to use accessible language in order
for those outside academia to be able to understand and therefore take part in the
larger discussion.
Completion
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ANSWER:
effect
3. The hypodermic-needle model is sometimes also called the magic _______ theory.
ANSWER:
bullet
4. In social science research, the _______ group serves as a basis for comparison with the
experimental group.
ANSWER:
control
5. When conducting _______ to test a hypothesis, researchers employ a control group for
comparison.
ANSWER:
experiments
6. The results of a(n) _______ are usually generalizable to a larger population.
ANSWER:
survey
7. _______ might help calculate how many times a person watching an hour of prime-time
television might see a violent act.
ANSWER:
Content analysis
8. _______ is the research method used in the “Bobo doll” study.
ANSWER:
Experiment
9. _______ theory is a theory within media effects research that suggests a link between the mass
media and behavior.
ANSWER:
Social learning
10. _______ is a media research argument that says that when the mass media pay attention to
particular events or issues, they determine the major topics of discussion for individuals and
society.
ANSWER:
Agenda-setting
11. _______ has generally demonstrated that the mass media don’t tell people what to think as
much as they tell people what to think about.
ANSWER:
Agenda-setting
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12. In media research, the _______ is the idea that heavy television viewing leads individuals to
perceive reality in ways that are consistent with television portrayals.
ANSWER:
cultivation effect
13. The _______ suggests that heavy viewers of television are more likely than light viewers to
perceive reality in ways that are more consistent with “TV reality.”
ANSWER:
cultivation effect
14. In media research, the _______ studies approach tries to understand how the media and
culture are tied to the actual patterns of communication used in daily life.
ANSWER:
cultural
15. In media research, an area that focuses on media ownership and what that might mean for the
messages distributed to the public is called _______.
ANSWER:
political economy studies
Multiple Choice
1. Walter Lippmann’s Public Opinion is considered by many academics to be “the founding book
in American media studies.”
a.
True
b.
False
ANSWER:
a
2. Social psychology studies measure public attitudes.
a.
True
b.
False
ANSWER:
b
3. Media effects research first emerged because of concerns about television violence.
a.
True
b.
False
ANSWER:
b
4. Between 1930 and 1970, “Who says what to whom with what effect?” became the key
question in American communications research.
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a.
True
b.
False
ANSWER:
a
5. Researchers associated with the minimal-effects model argue that people engage in selective
exposure and selective retention with regard to the media.
a.
True
b.
False
ANSWER:
a
6. The minimal-effects model of mass media research holds that the media reinforce existing
behaviors and attitudes rather than change them.
a.
True
b.
False
ANSWER:
a
7. Survey research is better than experimental research at establishing cause-effect linkages, but
experimental research gets closer to real-world conditions.
a.
True
b.
False
ANSWER:
b
8. Content analysis is the primary method researchers use to measure the amount of violence on
network television.
a.
True
b.
False
ANSWER:
a
9. One of the main problems in studying the effects of media is that whatever real effects the
media cause, they also often serve as a scapegoat for larger social problems.
a.
True
b.
False
ANSWER:
a
10. Agenda-setting refers to the media’s ability to change public opinion on controversial issues.
a.
True
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b.
False
ANSWER:
b
11. The cultivation effect theory suggests that heavy viewing of television leads individuals to
perceive the world in ways that are consistent with television’s portrayals of the world.
a.
True
b.
False
ANSWER:
a
12. Textual analysis is able to demonstrate the effects of the media on audiences.
a.
True
b.
False
ANSWER:
b
13. One key difference between content analysis and textual analysis is the greater emphasis on
counting, measurement, and reliability in content analysis.
a.
True
b.
False
ANSWER:
a
14. The idea of the public sphere, defined as a space for critical public debate, was first advanced
by American media critic Walter Lippmann.
a.
True
b.
False
ANSWER:
b
15. Philosophers such as Jürgen Habermas believed that critical public debate beyond the control
of aristocrats, royalty, and religious elites led to support for causes like free speech.
a.
True
b.
False
ANSWER:
a
16. Jürgen Habermas’s theory of the public sphere was about the need for global cooperation
with public projects.
a.
True
b.
False
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ANSWER:
b
17. The scientific study of mass media got started because of interest in
a.
French philosopher Alexis de Tocqueville.
b.
how media messages were used to inspire public support for World War I.
c.
knowing which forms of advertising were most effective.
d.
finding out how the public feels about political and social issues.
ANSWER:
b
18. Researchers’ negative definition of the kind of propaganda used by various governments
during World War I was
a.
“the opinions of various political groups and candidates for political office.”
b.
“the control of military communication through the use of secret codes.”
c.
“the use of reliable and truthful information in an honest discussion of national
policy.”
d.
“partisan appeal based on half-truths and devious manipulation of communication
channels.”
ANSWER:
d
19. Call-in, online, or person-in–the-street polls that the news media use to address a “question of
the day” are known as
a.
propaganda analysis.
b.
the uses and gratifications model.
c.
the scientific method.
d.
pseudo-polls.
ANSWER:
d
20. Which of the following is NOT a legitimate technique for gathering quality research data?
a.
surveys
b.
content analysis
c.
textual analysis
d.
online question-of-the-day polls
ANSWER:
d
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21. The 1938 radio broadcast of War of the Worlds made millions of listeners believe that
Martians were invading Earth; however, most listeners didn’t believe that the story was real. This
outcome ultimately helped lay the groundwork for which research model?
a.
the hypodermic-needle model
b.
the minimal-effects model
c.
the uses and gratifications model
d.
the survey model
ANSWER:
b
22. People often choose to expose themselves only to media outlets that express their particular
views. What is this called?
a.
the uses and gratifications model
b.
selective exposure and selective retention
c.
the hypodermic-needle model
d.
the marketing research model
ANSWER:
b
23. The question “Why do we use the media?” is often asked under the ______ model.
a.
uses and gratifications
b.
selective exposure and selective retention
c.
hypodermic-needle
d.
marketing research
ANSWER:
a
24. Which of the following is NOT a common characteristic of private or proprietary mass media
research?
a.
It is more theoretical than applied.
b.
It is generally conducted for a business, a corporation, or even a political campaign.
c.
It relies on the scientific method to reach conclusions.
d.
It tends to try to find answers to meet a real-life problem or need.
ANSWER:
a
25. According to the textbook, which of the following is NOT one of the steps in the scientific
method?
a.
identifying the research problem
b.
determining an appropriate method or research design
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c.
collecting information or relevant data
d.
presenting the proposed research problem to companies for funding
ANSWER:
d
26. Which kind of research method employs a control group for comparison?
a.
focus group interviews
b.
content analysis
c.
political economy
d.
experiments
ANSWER:
d
27. In experiments, subjects are picked for each group through ______, which simply means that
each subject has an equal chance of being placed in either group.
a.
random assignment
b.
hypotheses
c.
control groups
d.
surveys
ANSWER:
a
28. A media effects researcher might choose an experiment approach if he or she has
a.
a desire to get results that reflect some truth about a large population.
b.
a desire to find out if two variables are related in some undetermined way.
c.
a desire to try to show a cause-effect relationship between two variables.
d.
a desire to study a large population.
ANSWER:
c
29. A media effects researcher might choose a survey approach if he or she has a desire to
a.
try to control variables using a control group and an experiment group.
b.
demonstrate a clear cause-effect relationship.
c.
observe people in a laboratory or another tightly controlled situation.
d.
collect information that applies to a large population.
ANSWER:
d
30. Which type of study looks at changes in a population over time?
a.
content analysis study
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b.
longitudinal study
c.
agenda-setting study
d.
experiment study
ANSWER:
b
31. Which kind of research method reveals correlations between two variables?
a.
content analysis
b.
experiment
c.
political economy
d.
survey
ANSWER:
d
32. Surveys are only as good as the _____ of their questions and the answer choices they present.
a.
research
b.
layout
c.
wording
d.
story line
ANSWER:
c
33. Which kind of research involves systematically coding and measuring media content?
a.
experiments
b.
focus group interviews
c.
surveys
d.
content analysis
ANSWER:
d
34. Which method is a researcher using if he or she watches a season of a television program and
counts each time an act of violence is shown?
a.
content analysis
b.
experiment
c.
textual analysis
d.
survey
ANSWER:
a
35. Which of the following is NOT one of the four steps identified as part of the social learning
theory process?
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a.
retention
b.
motivation
c.
attention
d.
cultivation
ANSWER:
d
36. Which line of research has generally demonstrated that the mass media don’t tell people what
to think as much as they tell people what to think about?
a.
cultivation effect
b.
agenda-setting
c.
social learning theory
d.
spiral of silence
ANSWER:
b
37. Which line of research helps explain why Midwesterners started to rank shark attacks as a
problem after the 1975 release of the movie Jaws and its subsequent press coverage?
a.
cultivation effect
b.
agenda-setting
c.
spiral of silence
d.
textual analysis
ANSWER:
b
38. If someone has never been the victim of a violent crime and lives in an area that has very low
rates of violent crime yet feels that he or she is at a high level of risk for such a crime after
watching a lot of Law & Order, this might be an example of
a.
the cultivation effect.
b.
agenda-setting.
c.
political economy.
d.
textual analysis.
ANSWER:
a
39. The major research in the area of the cultivation effect grew from the attempts of ______ to
make generalizations about the influence of televised violence.
a.
social learning theorists
b.
George Gerbner and his colleagues
c.
Walter Lippman
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d.
Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann
ANSWER:
b
40. The cultivation effect (also known as “mean world” syndrome) argues that
a.
the more television people watch, the meaner they become.
b.
people who watch more television believe they are more likely to become victims of
crime or violence than they actually are.
c.
people who consider television watching an “uncultured” activity are more likely to
believe that most people are violent.
d.
people who watch violent television will become more violent.
ANSWER:
b
41. Which of the following is a theory that contends that people who believe they hold minority
opinions on controversial issues tend not to speak out for fear of social isolation?
a.
cultivation effect
b.
agenda-setting
c.
social learning
d.
spiral of silence
ANSWER:
d
42. ______ is the theory that people believe others are more affected by media messages than
they are themselves.
a.
The cultivation effect
b.
Agenda-setting
c.
The third-person effect
d.
Textual analysis
ANSWER:
c
43. Which of the following is characteristic of a cultural studies approach to mass media
research?
a.
the belief that audiences are primarily passive and easily persuaded
b.
an attempt to understand how people use media to serve their own ends
c.
the belief that the media don’t tell us what to think but what to think about
d.
a focus on how people make meaning, understand reality, and order their experiences
ANSWER:
d
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44. The close reading and interpretation of the meaning of cultural forms is called
a.
content analysis.
b.
agenda-setting.
c.
textual analysis.
d.
uses and gratifications.
ANSWER:
c
45. When mass media researchers say they are studying political economy, they are most likely
looking at which of the following?
a.
the ways political candidates make decisions about reaching an audience
b.
the ways economists become political candidates
c.
the way ownership of a television network influences the kinds of information that
appears in the network news
d.
the way ordinary people engage in political activism or conversations about politics
ANSWER:
c
46. While social science research can be characterized as trying to establish a cause-and-effect
relationship, cultural studies research
a.
does exactly the same thing but calls it something different.
b.
looks at how propaganda might affect a group of people.
c.
examines only how the media affect the world.
d.
forms from more general perspectives about how the mass media interact with the
world.
ANSWER:
d
47. Two foundational concepts in cultural studies research are (1) the _____ and (2) the idea of
communication as culture.
a.
textual analysis
b.
audience studies
c.
political economy studies
d.
public sphere
ANSWER:
d
48. Habermas formed his ideas about the public sphere while examining which aspect of
seventeenth– and eighteenth-century English and French society?
a.
aristocrats, royalty, and religious leaders’ discussions of important issues
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b.
the way newspapers manipulated the lower and middle classes
c.
how the middle class began to gather in places like coffeehouses to critically discuss
public life
d.
the idea that communication and culture could be viewed as the same thing
ANSWER:
c
49. Which of the following is NOT one of the ways Habermas thought mass media could be an
enemy of democracy?
a.
Media power could be used to decrease consumerism.
b.
The powerful could use the media to manipulate the public into supporting the status
quo.
c.
The media could be used to procure mass loyalty among the populace.
d.
Citizens would not engage in critical examination of the power held by those who
ruled.
ANSWER:
a
50. Media historian James Carey defined communication as
a.
“an exchange of verbal or nonverbal symbols between individuals or groups.”
b.
“a symbolic process whereby reality is produced, maintained, repaired, and
transformed.”
c.
“the gathering of a middle class to critically discuss the world around them.”
d.
“a strict set of rules governing how different social classes interact.”
ANSWER:
b
51. An example of Carey’s description of communication as culture might be seen in
a.
people gathering in meetinghouses to talk about issues like free speech.
b.
the way a message goes simply from sender to receiver.
c.
the attempts to repair and transform society through adjusted narratives and symbols
following the Civil Rights protests of the 1950s and 1960s.
d.
how culture disconnects from the communication of a particular period.
ANSWER:
c
52. If you are trying to understand human behavior rather than explain and predict it, which
approach to mass communication research would you take?
a.
a media effects approach to research
b.
a cultural approach to research
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c.
an agenda-setting approach to research
d.
a content analysis approach to research
ANSWER:
b
53. Critics of mass media research point to which of the following as a reason why the growing
body of academic knowledge about the media seems to have little impact on the vast majority of
mass media users?
a.
Members of the public just don’t care how media affect their lives.
b.
None of the research addresses the concerns of marginalized groups.
c.
Specialized jargon makes it nearly impossible for nonacademics, and even other
academics, to understand the results of the research.
d.
Researchers just don’t care about the concerns and interests of the general public.
ANSWER:
c