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INSTRUCTIONS: The following selections relate to distinguishing arguments from nonarguments and identifying
conclusions. Select the best answer for each.
1. The Titanic sank on its maiden voyage in 1912 because it collided with an iceberg. Four of the ship’s 16 watertight
compartments could have been flooded without the ship sinking. However the iceberg tore several gashes in the hull,
flooding 5 of these compartments.
a. Argument; conclusion: The Titanic sank on its maiden voyage in 1912.
b. Argument; conclusion: The iceberg tore several gashes … of these compartments.
c. Nonargument.
d. Argument; conclusion: Four of the ship’s watertight compartments … ship sinking.
e. Argument; conclusion: The Titanic collided with an iceberg.
2. Every individual is capable of injuring or killing himself. This potentiality is a fundamental expression of human
freedom. Self-destructive behavior may be regarded as sinful and penalized by means of informal sanctions. But it should
not be regarded as a crime or (mental) disease, justifying or warranting the use of the police powers of the state for its
control. Therefore, it is absurd to deprive an adult of a drug (or of anything else) because he might use it to kill himself.
Thomas Szasz, “The Ethics of Addiction”.
a. Argument; conclusion: Every individual is capable of injuring or killing himself.
b. Argument; conclusion: Self destructive behavior … informal sanctions.
c. Nonargument.
d. Argument; conclusion: This potentiality … expression of human freedom.
e. Argument; conclusion: It is absurd to deprive an adult of a drug … kill himself.
3. Acid rain is an ecological threat that must be taken seriously. Acid rain has killed the fish in thousands of lakes, and it
has caused billions of dollars in damages to important crops. Furthermore, acid rain poses a serious threat to our nation’s
forests.
a. Argument; conclusion: Acid rain is an ecological threat … taken seriously.
b. Argument; conclusion: Acid rain has killed the fish in thousands of lakes.
c. Nonargument.
d. Argument; conclusion: Acid rain poses a serious threat to our nation’s forests.
e. Argument; conclusion: Acid rain has caused … damage to important crops.
4. Most fast food restaurants cook French fries and other foods in beef tallow. This is a flavorful shortening high in
saturated fat, which has been linked to heart disease. Chicken, which is low in fat, in a fast food sandwich has been found
to contain more fat than a pint of ice cream. The reason fast food restaurants use beef tallow is that it makes food more
flavorful and it is cheaper than alternative ways of cooking food.
Dominic Salvatore, Managerial Economics, 3rd ed.
a. Argument; conclusion: Most fast food restaurants cook … in beef tallow.
b. Argument; conclusion: Beef tallow makes food more flavorful … cooking food.
c. Argument; conclusion: Chicken, which is low in fat … ice cream.
d. Nonargument.
e. Argument; conclusion: Beef tallow is a flavorful shortening … heart disease.
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5. If growth can no longer be counted on to provide for all the major wants, private and public, of a society, or to sustain
all the peripheral members of a society at a level that keeps a lid on mutinous outbreaks, especially in congested urban
centers, then some specification of a nation’s most serious needs—its social priorities—and some direction as to how
goods are to be allocated among society’s members are needed.
Neil W. Chamberlain, Social Strategy and Corporate Structure
a. Argument; conclusion: Growth can no longer be counted on … of a society.
b. Nonargument.
c. Argument; conclusion: Some specification … are needed.
d. Argument; conclusion: Growth cannot sustain … members of a society.
e. Argument; conclusion: Growth cannot keep a lid on mutinous outbreaks.
6. High school health clinics across the nation should be permitted to dispense Norplant, the new birth control medication.
Teenage pregnancy today is at an all time high, and Norplant is 99 percent effective in preventing pregnancy.
Furthermore, a single dose ensures protection for a full five years.
a. Argument; conclusion: Norplant is 99 percent effective in preventing pregnancy.
b. Argument; conclusion: Teenage pregnancy … preventing pregnancy.
c. Argument; conclusion: High school health clinics across the nation … medication.
d. Argument; conclusion: A single dose ensures protection for a full five years.
e. Nonargument.
7. The countries of the world today are divided into 2 groups. The more-developed countries, typified by countries in
North America and Europe, are those in which population growth is under control and the people enjoy a good standard of
living. The less-developed countries, typified by countries in Latin America, Africa, and Asia, are those in which
population growth is out of control and the majority of people live in poverty.
Sylvia S. Mader, Human Biology, 4th ed.
a. Argument; conclusion: The countries of the … into two groups.
b. Nonargument.
c. Argument; conclusion: The more developed countries … standard of living.
d. Argument; conclusion: The less developed countries … live in poverty.
e. Argument; conclusion: The less developed countries … Africa, and Asia.
8. There are three familiar states of matter: solid, liquid and gas. Solid objects ordinarily maintain their shape and volume
regardless of their location. A liquid occupies a definite volume, but assumes the shape of the occupied portion of its
container. A gas maintains neither shape nor volume. It expands to fill completely whatever container it is in.
John W. Hill and Dorris K Kolb, Chemistry for Changing Times
a. Nonargument.
b. Argument; conclusion: Solid objects ordinarily maintain … their location.
c. Argument; conclusion: There are three familiar … solid, liquid, and gas.
d. Argument; conclusion: A gas maintains neither shape nor volume.
e. Argument; conclusion: A gas expands to fill completely whatever container it is in.
9. Cancer is apt to develop in individuals who exhibit an immunodeficiency. For Example, people with AIDS develop a
cancer of the blood vessels called Kaposi’s sarcoma. Transplant patients who are on immunosuppressive drugs are more
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apt to develop lymphomas and Kaposi’s sarcoma. Persons who inherit an immunodeficiency are also more apt to develop
these cancers.
Sylvia S. Mader, Human Biology, 4th ed.
a. Argument; conclusion: Persons who inherit an immunodeficiency … cancers.
b. Argument; conclusion: Transplant patients … lymphomas and Kaposi’s sarcoma.
c. Argument; conclusion: People with AIDS … Kaposi’s sarcoma.
d. Nonargument.
e. Argument; conclusion: Cancer is apt to develop … an immunodeficiency.
10. The significance of meat eating for future human evolution was enormous. Not only did it provide a secure source of
high quality protein, but as an accidental by product, it made possible the development of larger brains. The nutritive
demands of nerve tissue are high—higher in fact than the demands of the other types of tissue in the human body. One
can meet these demands on a vegetarian diet, but the overall nutritive value of a given amount of such food is less than
that of the same amount of meat.
William A. Haviland, Cultural Anthropology, 5th ed.
a. Argument; conclusion: The nutritive demands of nerve tissue … human body.
b. Argument; conclusion: Not only did it provide a secure source … larger brains.
c. Nonargument.
d. Argument; conclusion: The significance of meat eating … was enormous.
e. Argument; conclusion: One can meet these demands … amount of meat.
11. Bismarck, chancellor of Prussia, harnessed the conservative agenda of keeping the aristocracy in power while
promoting the liberal nationalist aim of German unification. He also proved successful at diplomacy with the other great
powers. Through three quick and successful wars against Denmark, Austria, and France, he united Germany in 1871
under Prussian leadership.
Steven L. Spiegel, World Politics in a New Era
a. Argument; conclusion: He also proved successful … the other great powers.
b. Argument; conclusion: Through three quick and successful … Prussian leadership.
c. Nonargument.
d. Argument; conclusion: Bismarck, chancellor of Prussia … aristocracy in power.
e. Argument; conclusion: Bismarck promoted the liberal nationalist aim of German unification.
12. Liquids and solids expand only slightly when heated, whereas gases expand appreciably when heated. If the gas is not
free to expand, its pressure rises when heated. Certain substances may melt, burn, boil, or explode, depending on their
composition and structure. Thus, the thermal behavior of a substance is closely related to its structure.
Raymond A. Serway, Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 4th ed.
a. Argument; conclusion: Certain substances may melt, burn, or explode … structure.
b. Argument; conclusion: The thermal behavior of a substance … its structure.
c. Argument; conclusion: If the gas is not free to expand … rises when heated.
d. Nonargument.
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13. We believe that our company must develop and produce outstanding products that will perform a great service or fill a
need for our customers. We believe that our business must be run at an adequate profit. We believe that the services and
products we offer must be better than those offered by our competitors. We believe that our business must provide
stability of employment and job security for all those who depend on our company for their livelihood.
Robert D. Hay, et al, “Introduction to Social Responsibility”
a. Argument; conclusion: We believe that our company … our customers.
b. Argument; conclusion: We believe that our business must be run … profit.
c. Nonargument.
d. Argument; conclusion: We believe that our business must provide … livelihood.
e. Argument; conclusion: We believe that the services … our competitors.
14. Oxygen makes up almost 21 percent of our present atmosphere. It is essential to modern life for two reasons. First,
oxygen is what we must inhale so that our bodies can ‘burn’ (oxidize) food, releasing energy to our cells. Second, we
depend on oxygen for protection from the ultraviolet radiation from the sun that constantly bombards our planet.
Harold V. Thurman, Essentials of Oceanography, 5th. ed.
a. Argument; conclusion: Oxygen is essential to modern life.
b. Argument; conclusion: Oxygen makes up almost 21 percent … atmosphere.
c. Argument; conclusion: We depend on oxygen … bombards our planet.
d. Argument; conclusion: Oxygen is what we must inhale … energy to our cells.
e. Nonargument.
15. Chemotherapy for cancer has produced a few dramatic successes. Almost 75% of children with childhood leukemia
are completely cured. Hodgkin‘s disease, a lymphoma, once killed 2 out of 3 patients. Now, a combination therapy of 4
different drugs can wipe out the disease in a matter of months in 3 out of 4 patients, even when the cancer is not diagnosed
immediately.
Raymond A. Serway, Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 4th ed.
a. Argument; conclusion: Now, a combination therapy … diagnosed immediately.
b. Argument; conclusion: Almost 75% of children … are completely cured.
c. Nonargument.
d. Argument; conclusion: Hodgkin’s disease … once killed 2 out of 3 patients.
e. Argument; conclusion: Chemotherapy for cancer … a few dramatic successes.
16. Cultural anthropology is the study of all aspects of human behavior. It could reasonably be argued that cultural
anthropology began with Aristotle, or even earlier. But for practical purposes, the beginnings of cultural anthropology are
found in the nineteenth century. This was the century when Europeans became increasingly aware of what they termed
“primitive societies” in Africa and Asia.
Robert Jurmain, et al., Essentials of Physical Anthropology, 2nd ed.
a. Argument; conclusion: Cultural anthropology is the study … human behavior.
b. Argument; conclusion: The beginnings … are found in the nineteenth century.
c. Nonargument.
d. Argument; conclusion: Cultural anthropology began with Aristotle, or even earlier.
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17. Anything can be measured. If a thing can be observed in any way at all, it lends itself to some type of measurement
method. No matter how “fuzzy” the measurement is, it’s still a measurement if it tells you more than you knew before.
And challenges posed by those things most likely to be seen as immeasurable are, virtually always, met by relatively
simple measurement methods.
Dougles W. Hubbard, How to Measure Anything
a. Argument; conclusion: If a thing can be observed ... measurement method.
b. Argument; conclusion: Anything can be measured.
c. Argument; conclusion: And challenges posed … simple measurement methods.
d. Argument; conclusion: No matter how “fuzzy” … more than you knew before.
INSTRUCTIONS: The following problems relate to identifying and evaluating inductive and deductive arguments.
Select the best answer for each.
18. Jenny and Francine were awarded National Merit Scholarships and both love mathematics. Jenny breezed through Dr.
Marshall’s calculus class with an “A”. Thus, Francine should do well in that class, too.
a. Inductive, weak.
b. Inductive, sound.
c. Inductive, strong.
d. Deductive, valid.
e. Deductive, invalid.
19. Highway 37 cannot be the road to Brookfield. The road to Brookfield is a gravel road and Highway 37 is paved.
a. Deductive, valid.
b. Deductive, invalid.
c. Inductive, weak.
d. Inductive, strong.
e. Deductive, strong.
20. Since Greenville is one mile from Central City, and Central City is one mile from Harristown, it follows necessarily
that Greenville is two miles from Harristown.
a. Inductive, strong.
b. Deductive, cogent.
c. Inductive, weak.
d. Deductive, valid.
e. Deductive, invalid.
21. The National Questioner (known for its sensationalist journalism) reports that a young boy in Oklahoma has spoken
with Martians. Thus, we must draw the conclusion that Martians do indeed exist.
a. Inductive, strong.
b. Inductive, weak.
c. Deductive, valid.
d. Inductive, cogent.
e. Deductive, weak.
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22. Since some politicians are honest people and some honest people are eloquent statesmen, it follows that some
politicians are eloquent statesmen.
a. Inductive, strong.
b. Inductive, weak.
c. Inductive, cogent.
d. Deductive, valid.
e. Deductive, invalid.
23. Dennis drives an old beat-up Volkswagen, lives in a cheap apartment, and his clothes are old and bedraggled. Dennis
must not have much money.
a. Inductive, strong.
b. Deductive, sound.
c. Deductive, valid.
d. Deductive, invalid.
e. Inductive, weak.
24. Most of the students attending Shoreline Prep have extremely wealthy parents. Since Madeline is a student at
Shoreline, it is likely that her parents are wealthy.
a. Deductive, sound.
b. Inductive, weak.
c. Inductive, strong.
d. Deductive, invalid.
e. Deductive, valid.
25. Since figure A is a square and the length of one of its sides is exactly one inch, it follows that its area is exactly one
square inch.
a. Inductive, uncogent.
b. Deductive, invalid.
c. Inductive, strong.
d. Inductive, weak.
e. Deductive, valid.
26. According to a two hundred year old tradition, the president of the Apex Club has always been a woman. Therefore,
the next president will most likely be a woman.
a. Inductive, weak.
b. Deductive, cogent.
c. Deductive, valid.
d. Inductive, strong.
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27. Since a is greater than b, and c is greater than d, it necessarily follows that a + b is greater than c + d. (a, b, c, d, = real
numbers).
a. Deductive, valid.
b. Inductive, unsound.
c. Deductive, invalid.
d. Inductive, strong.
28. Arthur looks jaundiced today. Arthur must have the flu.
a. Deductive, valid.
b. Inductive, strong.
c. Deductive, invalid.
d. Inductive, weak.
e. Deductive, weak.
29. In the window of the Broadway department store a huge sign reads “Sale.” Therefore, there must be a sale going on
inside.
a. Deductive, valid.
b. Inductive, strong.
c. Inductive, weak.
d. Deductive, strong.
e. Deductive, invalid.
30. Since Gina and Tom have the same natural parents, it follows that they are siblings.
a. Deductive, valid.
b. Inductive, valid.
c. Deductive, invalid.
d. Inductive, strong.
e. Inductive, weak.
31. A few winners of the Nobel Peace Prize have been women. Therefore, it is likely that the next Nobel Peace Prize
winner will be a woman.
a. Inductive, weak.
b. Inductive, strong.
c. Inductive, cogent.
d. Deductive, valid.
e. Deductive, invalid.
32. Claire Connors and Melanie Howard cannot be one and the same person, because Claire was in Berlin during the
entire month of January, and at that time Melanie was in Chicago.
a. Inductive, strong.
b. Deductive, valid.
c. Deductive, invalid.
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d. Deductive, sound.
e. Inductive, weak.
33. If beauty pageants are abolished, then our sense of values will improve. Beauty pageants will not be
abolished. Therefore, our sense of values will not improve.
a. Deductive, valid.
b. Inductive, weak.
c. Inductive, cogent.
d. Deductive, invalid.
e. Deductive, cogent.
34. Entertainer Rush Limbaugh claims that supply side economics really works. Therefore, we should believe that supply
side economics does indeed work.
a. Deductive, invalid.
b. Deductive, valid.
c. Inductive, weak.
d. Inductive, cogent.
e. Inductive, strong.
INSTRUCTIONS: Select the correct answer for each multiple choice question.
35. Which of the following words is not a conclusion indicator?
a. Accordingly.
b. For the reason that.
c. Wherefore.
d. Implies that.
e. Thus.
36. Which of the following sentences is not a statement?
a. Car sales are off this year.
b. The gypsy moth is a threat to agriculture.
c. Pile these boxes of books in the corner.
d. Mr. Jarvis was attacked by a grizzly bear.
e. Your bicycle has a flat tire.
37. In an explanation, the statement that describes the event to be explained is called the:
a. Explanandum.
b. Explicans.
c. Consequent.
d. Antecedent.
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38. Which of the following is an argument?
a. A conditional statement.
b. A warning.
c. A hypothetical syllogism.
d. A piece of advice.
e. A report.
39. Which of the following is not an inductive argument?
a. An argument based on signs.
b. A causal inference.
c. An argument from analogy.
d. An argument from definition.
e. A prediction.
40. A deductive argument always proceeds from:
a. The particular to the general.
b. The general to the particular.
c. The particular to the particular.
d. The general to the general.
e. None of these.
41. Which of the following is a necessary condition for starting a campfire?
a. Striking a match.
b. Heating the wood to its combustion temperature.
c. Pouring gasoline on the wood.
d. Focusing the rays of the sun with a magnifying glass.
e. Creating a spark by striking a piece of flint with a piece of steel.
42. If a deductive argument has a false conclusion then we know the argument is:
a. Unsound.
b. Weak.
c. Valid.
d. Invalid.
e. Uncogent.
43. If an inductive argument has true premises and a probably false conclusion, then we know the argument is:
a. Strong.
b. Invalid.
c. Unsound.
d. Valid.
e. Weak.
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44. If the form of a deductive argument allows for a substitution instance having true premises and a true conclusion, then
we know:
a. The argument is strong.
b. The argument is sound.
c. Nothing, as such, about the argument’s validity.
d. The argument is valid.
INSTRUCTIONS: The following problems relate to the counterexample method.
45. PART A
All college professors are teachers, so all teachers are educators, since all college professors are educators.
This argument is correctly symbolized as follows:
a. All C are E. b. All C are T. c. All T are E.
All T are E. All T are E. All C are T.
All C are T. All C are E. All C are E.
d. All T are E. e. All C are T.
All C are E. All C are E.
All C are T. All T are E.
PART B
Which of the following substitutions proves the argument invalid?
a. C = mammals, E = animals, T = fish.
b. C = cats, E = mammals, T = animals.
c. C = animals, E = mammals, T = cats.
d. C = dogs, E = animals, T = mammals.
e. C = cats, E = dogs, T = mammals.
46. PART A
If Dorothy misses her plane, then she will arrive late for the wedding. Therefore, Dorothy will miss her plane, because she
will certainly arrive late for the wedding.
This argument is correctly symbolized as follows:
a. If M then A. b. If M then A. c. If S then P.
A M If A then S.
M A If P then A.
d. All M are A. e. S are P.
All A are S. A are C.
All S are M. S are A.
PART B
Which of the following substitutions proves the argument invalid?
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a. S = George Washington committed suicide, P = he is dead, M = Abraham Lincoln committed suicide.
b. M = George Smith committed suicide, A = George Smith is dead.
c. M = Abraham Lincoln committed suicide, A = Abraham Lincoln is dead.
d. M = Abraham Lincoln is dead, A = Abraham Lincoln committed suicide.
e. M = cats, A = mammals, M = animals.
47. PART A
Some Americans are blond women, since some Americans are blond, and some Americans are women.
Which of the following is a correct symbolization of this argument?
a. Some A are B. b. Some A are W. c. Some A are B.
Some A are BW. Some A are B. Some B are BW.
Some A are W. Some B are W. Some A are BW.
d. Some A are B. e. Some A are BW.
Some A are W. Some A are B.
Some A are BW. Some A are W.
PART B
Which of the following substitutions proves the argument invalid?
a. A = apples, B = red, W = fruits.
b. A = fruits, B = green, W = apples.
c. A = lemons, B = purple, W = fruits.
d. A = fruits, B = yellow, W = lemons.
e. A = fruits, B = purple, W = lemons.