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INSTRUCTIONS: The following selections relate to distinguishing arguments from nonarguments and identifying
conclusions. Select the best answer for each.
1. The Social Security system is a pay-as–you–go arrangement where contributions by today’s workers are paid out to
yesterday’s retirees. If part of today’s contributions go into private retirement accounts, they cannot be paid out. To make
up the shortage, the government would have to borrow massive amounts of money. Hence, Social Security privatization
would cause a huge increase in the federal deficit.
a. Nonargument.
b. Argument; conclusion: If part of today’s contributions … cannot be paid out.
c. Argument; conclusion: Social security privatization … federal deficit.
d. Argument; conclusion: The Social Security System … to yesterday’s retirees.
e. Argument; conclusion: To make up the shortage … massive amounts of money.
2. There are two approaches to the development and testing of hypotheses: inductive and deductive. In the inductive
method, the scientist gathers empirical data and from it arrives at a generalization. The inductive method proceeds from
specific observations to a general conclusion. Using a deductive method, a scientist develops a general idea about a
phenomenon, performs experiments, and from them makes specific predictions that can be tested again.
Robert Leo Smith and Thomas M Smith, Ecology and Field Biology, 6th edition
a. Argument; conclusion: The inductive method … to a general conclusion.
b. Nonargument.
c. Argument; conclusion: There are two approaches … inductive and deductive.
d. Argument; conclusion: using a deductive method … can be tested again.
e. Argument; conclusion: In the inductive method … at a generalization.
3. Cats can see in the dark because they have a special mirror-like layer of cells behind their retina called the tapetum
lucidum. When light passes through the retina, it is reflected back through it by this layer of cells, and this provides
additional stimulation to the retina’s light receptors.
a. Argument; conclusion: This provides additional … light receptors.
b. Argument; conclusion: When light passes through … by this layer of cells.
c. Argument; conclusion: They have a special … tapetum lucidum.
d. Argument; conclusion: Cats can see in the dark.
e. Nonargument.
4. The U.S. is the largest single market in the world in terms of national income. It represents roughly 25 percent of the
total world market for all products and services. Thus, U.S. companies that wish to achieve maximum growth potential
must “go global” because 75 percent of the world market potential is outside their home country.
Warren J. Keegan and Mark C. Green, Global Marketing
a. Argument; conclusion: U.S. companies that wish … must “go global.”
b. Argument; conclusion: It represents … products and services.
c. Argument; conclusion: 75 percent of the world market … home country.
d. Nonargument.
e. Argument; conclusion: The U.S. is the largest … national income.
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5. Over the past decade, many graffiti artists have moved away from painting their signatures in the familiar wide-style
lettering (a practice known as “tagging“). Instead, they make their mark with pictograms. Thus, a Belgian artist known as
Plug appends large, cartoon electric plugs to machines in public places, while Cha, an academy-trained painter, adorns the
walls of Barcelona with Picasso-influenced cats.
Tristan Manco, “Street Logos”
a. Argument; conclusion: Cha, an academy⎯trained … Picasso-influenced cats.
b. Argument; conclusion: Instead, they make their mark with pictograms.
c. Argument; conclusion: Over the past decade … ( a practice known as “tagging“).
d. Nonargument.
e. Argument; conclusion: A Belgian artist known as Plug … in public places.
6. Sugar never spoils or gets moldy because it has an extremely low moisture content. This low moisture content
dehydrates and kills microorganisms that might cause mold, and it impedes chemical changes that could cause spoilage.
a. Argument; conclusion: This low moisture content … that might cause mold.
b. Argument; conclusion: Sugar never spoils or gets moldy.
c. Argument; conclusion: It impedes chemical changes that could cause spoilage.
d. Argument; conclusion: It has an extremely low moisture content.
e. Nonargument.
7. Contrary to the assurances of the fast food industry, most fast foods are loaded with fat grams. For example, KFC’s
Chunky Chicken Pot Pie has 42 fat grams, a Double Whopper with Cheese has 65, and an order of Mucho Grande Nachos
has an incredible 82 fat grams.
a. Argument; conclusion: An order of Mucho Grande Nachos … 82 fat grams.
b. Nonargument.
c. Argument; conclusion: Most fast foods are loaded with fat grams.
d. Argument; conclusion: KFC’s Chunky Chicken Pot Pie has 42 fat grams.
e. Argument; conclusion: A Double Whopper with Cheese has 65.
8. Education in the United States is a system in crisis. Compared to their Asian and European counterparts, American
students are poor academic performers, especially in sciences and in mathematics. Despite having received an education,
millions of adults are functionally and culturally illiterate. Educational funding has been cut dramatically, and many
school facilities are in dangerous states of disrepair.
Michael P. Soroka and George J. Bryjak, Social Problems: A World at Risk
a. Argument; conclusion: Education in the United States is a system in crisis.
b. Argument; conclusion: Despite having received … culturally illiterate.
c. Argument; conclusion: Compared to their Asian … sciences and in mathematics.
d. Argument; conclusion: Educational funding … dangerous states of disrepair.
e. Nonargument.
9. Photographs taken from space show that Earth is striking in its beauty. Blue oceans cover nearly three-fourths of the
surface, broken by the continental land masses and scattered islands. The polar caps are white with snow and ice, and
white clouds are scattered above the surface. At night, the glow of artificial lights clearly reveals the presence of an
intelligent civilization.
Jeffrey Bennett, et al., The Cosmic Perspective, 3rd edition
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a. Argument; conclusion: The polar caps … above the surface.
b. Nonargument.
c. Argument; conclusion: Blue oceans … scattered islands.
d. Argument; conclusion: At night, the glow … an intelligent civilization.
e. Argument; conclusion: Photographs taken from space … striking in its beauty.
10. Water is a highly reactive substance, quite different both physically and chemically from most other liquids. Indeed,
life as we know it would be impossible if water did not have the properties it does. The first living systems presumably
arose in the aqueous environment of shallow seas. It is therefore not surprising that the living organisms of the present are
intimately adapted at the molecular level to the special properties of water.
David Randall et al., Animal Physiology
a. Argument; conclusion: Water is a highly reactive … most other liquids.
b. Argument; conclusion: Indeed, life as we know it … the properties it does.
c. Argument; conclusion: It is not surprising … properties of water.
d. Nonargument.
e. Argument; conclusion: The first living systems … shallow seas.
11. Health care is a basic right. Our current system is convoluted and unethical and should go the way of gladiator games.
We can spar and battle in the free market in many arenas, but when we get sick we should all have care—not just the
lawyers, bankers, politicians, and others who can afford it. We like the free market, but we shouldn’t let people die in the
street—not in this country.
Lucius Schoenbaum, Letter to the Editor
a. Argument; conclusion: We can spar and battle … others who can afford it.
b. Argument; conclusion: We like the free market … not in this country.
c. Argument; conclusion: Our current system is convoluted … gladiator games.
d. Nonargument.
e. Argument; conclusion: Health care is a basic right.
12. If the dietary guidelines promulgated by the Department of Agriculture, which recommend two servings of fruit, three
servings of vegetables, and two servings of milk products every day, are to have any real effect, then fundamental cultural
changes will have to occur, and people will have to rethink their inherited notions about the purpose of eating—whether
we should eat for pleasure or for health—and what is necessary for a meal to be satisfying.
a. Nonargument.
b. Argument; conclusion: The dietary guidelines … are to have any real effect.
c. Argument; conclusion: Dietary guidelines have been promulgated by the Department of Agriculture.
d. Argument; conclusion: Fundamental cultural changes … to be satisfying.
e. Argument; conclusion: We must rethink whether we should eat for pleasure or for health.
13. Modern biology is as important as it is inspiring. Genetics and cell biology are revolutionizing medicine and
agriculture. Molecular biology is providing new tools for anthropology, helping us trace the origin and dispersal of early
humans. Ecology is helping us evaluate environmental issues, such as the causes and consequences of global warming.
And neuroscience and evolutionary biology are reshaping psychology and sociology.
Neil A. Campbell and Jane B. Reece, Biology, 6th edition
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a. Argument; conclusion: Genetics and cell biology … agriculture.
b. Argument; conclusion: Molecular biology … dispersal of early humans.
c. Nonargument.
d. Argument; conclusion: Neuroscience and evolutionary biology … sociology.
e. Argument; conclusion: Modern biology is as important as it is inspiring.
14. The farther away we look in distance, the further back we look in time. This fact allows us to see what parts of the
universe looked like in the distant past. For example, if we look at a galaxy that is 1 billion light years away, its light has
taken 1 billion years to reach us—which means we are seeing it as it looked 1 billion years ago.
Jeffrey Bennett, et al., The Cosmic Perspective, 3rd edition
a. Argument; conclusion: This fact allows us to see … in the distant past.
b. Argument; conclusion: The farther away … we look in time.
c. Argument; conclusion: If we look at a galaxy … 1 billion years to reach us.
d. Nonargument.
e. Argument; conclusion: We are seeing it as it looked 1 billion years ago.
15. The beating of your heart results from physiological mechanisms fundamentally no different from those that underlie
heart function in fishes, frogs, and birds. Likewise, the molecular events that produce an electrical nerve impulse in your
brain are fundamentally the same as those that produce an impulse in the nerve of a squid or rat. For these reasons, animal
physiology has made innumerable contributions to our understanding of human physiology.
David Randall et al., Animal Physiology
a. Argument; conclusion: Likewise, the molecular events … nerve of a squid or rat.
b. Nonargument.
c. Argument; conclusion: The beating of your heart … frogs, and birds.
d. Argument; conclusion: The beating of your heart … physiological mechanisms.
e. Argument; conclusion: Animal physiology … human physiology.
16. Laws banning junk e-mail are largely ineffective. Spammers can easily avoid such laws by moving overseas, where
local rules allow them free rein. Also, it is often impossible to detect the source of junk e-mail. Much of it is sent from
zombie transmitters—personal computers that have been hijacked by viruses.
Newspaper Clipping
a. Argument; conclusion: Spammers can easily avoid … allow them free rein.
b. Argument; conclusion: Much of it is sent … hijacked by viruses.
c. Argument; conclusion: Laws banning junk e-mail are largely ineffective.
d. Argument; conclusion: Also, it is often impossible … junk e-mail.
e. Nonargument.
17. The 300 million people who live in the U.S. make up just 5% of the world’s population, but they consume a quarter of
the world’s oil supply. For much of the twentieth century, the U.S. was the world’s largest oil producer, and its profligacy
wasn’t a pressing problem. Today, however, we are only the third-largest producer, behind Saudi Arabia and Russia. In
terms of proven reserves, we have slipped to tenth place in the international rankings.
John Cassidy, “Pump Dreams”
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a. Argument; conclusion: For much of the twentieth century … a pressing problem.
b. Nonargument.
c. Argument; conclusion: In terms of proven reserves … international rankings.
d. Argument; conclusion: The 290 million people who live … world’s oil supply.
e. Argument; conclusion: Today, however … Saudi Arabia and Russia.
INSTRUCTIONS: The following problems relate to identifying and evaluating inductive and deductive arguments.
Select the best answer for each.
18. If corporations continue to pollute, then the environment will be damaged beyond repair. The environment will be
damaged beyond repair. Therefore, corporations will continue to pollute.
a. Deductive, invalid.
b. Deductive, sound.
c. Inductive, strong.
d. Deductive, valid.
e. Inductive, weak.
19. Valerie Nelson’s last three novels sold well over a million copies each. She’s now finished a new novel, and it has
gotten better reviews than the earlier ones. Hence, her new novel should sell over a million copies, too.
a. Inductive, strong.
b. Inductive, weak.
c. Deductive, invalid.
d. Inductive, cogent.
e. Deductive, valid.
20. Pencil lead is composed of pure carbon, and pencil lead is very cheap. Diamonds, like pencil lead, are composed of
pure carbon. Therefore, probably diamonds are very cheap.
a. Deductive, invalid.
b. Inductive, strong.
c. Deductive, valid.
d. Inductive, sound.
e. Inductive, weak.
21. George is an egotist. Therefore, he has an inflated impression of his own importance.
a. Inductive, weak.
b. Deductive, invalid.
c. Inductive, strong.
d. Deductive, valid.
e. Inductive, cogent.
22. That billboard in the middle of the field says “Get the U.S. out of the U.N.” From this it’s clear that the United Nations
is a bad organization.
a. Deductive, valid.
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b. Inductive, weak.
c. Deductive, weak.
d. Deductive, invalid.
e. Inductive, strong.
23. Some heart attacks are not fatal occurrences, and no strokes are heart attacks. Thus, some strokes are not fatal
occurrences.
a. Deductive, sound.
b. Inductive, strong.
c. Deductive, invalid.
d. Inductive, weak.
e. Deductive, valid.
24. Figure A is a right triangle, and two of its sides have a length of 1 foot. Therefore, its area is 1/2 square foot.
a. Inductive, strong.
b. Deductive, invalid.
c. Deductive, sound.
d. Deductive, valid.
e. Inductive, weak.
25. More than 99% of all airplane flights land safely. Therefore, probably the next flight to depart from JFK International
Airport will land safely.
a. Deductive, valid.
b. Inductive, strong.
c. Inductive, weak.
d. Deductive, invalid.
e. Inductive, uncogent.
26. Radio show host Frank Weltner, who is a neo–Nazi white supremacist, says that all immigration from Mexico must
stop immediately. Therefore, we must take Mr. Weltner at his word and call a halt to Mexican immigration.
a. Deductive, unsound.
b. Inductive, strong.
c. Deductive, invalid.
d. Deductive, valid.
e. Inductive, weak.
27. If prisoners are discharged without any skills, then they will return to a life of crime. If prisoners are unable to get
jobs, then they will return to a life of crime. Thus, if prisoners are discharged without any skills, then they will be unable
to get jobs.
a. Deductive, invalid.
b. Deductive, valid.
c. Inductive, weak.
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d. Inductive, cogent.
e. Inductive, strong.
28. According to a widely respected poll, 60% of the voters in Pennsylvania support Amelia Kerrigan for Governor.
Therefore, Kerrigan will probably win, since the election is only two days away.
a. Deductive, valid.
b. Inductive, weak.
c. Inductive, cogent.
d. Inductive, strong.
e. Deductive, invalid.
29. All terrorist leaders are secluded megalomaniacs. No secluded megalomaniacs are lovers of humanity. Therefore, no
terrorist leaders are lovers of humanity.
a. Deductive, sound.
b. Deductive, valid.
c. Deductive, invalid.
d. Inductive, strong.
e. Inductive, weak.
30. Ashley detests Isabel, and Isabel detests Francesca. Therefore, it necessarily follows that Ashley detests Francesca.
a. Inductive, weak.
b. Inductive, strong.
c. Deductive, invalid.
d. Inductive, uncogent.
e. Deductive, valid.
31. Frank is bringing flowers home to his wife. Apparently Frank is having an affair.
a. Inductive, strong.
b. Deductive, valid.
c. Inductive, weak.
d. Deductive, invalid.
e. Deductive, unsound.
32. On the inside surface of this gold ring some small print reads “14k.” Therefore, the ring must be made of 14 caret
gold.
a. Deductive, valid.
b. Deductive, invalid.
c. Inductive, weak.
d. Inductive, strong.
e. Inductive, cogent.
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33. Either Woodrow Wilson or Theodore Roosevelt promoted the formation of the League of Nations. But it wasn’t
Wilson. Therefore, Theodore Roosevelt promoted the formation of the League of Nations.
a. Deductive, uncogent.
b. Inductive, weak.
c. Deductive, invalid.
d. Inductive, strong.
e. Deductive, valid.
34. Mitzi the cat is looking at its empty bowl and meowing. Mitzi must be hungry.
a. Inductive, strong.
b. Deductive, invalid.
c. Deductive, valid.
d. Inductive, weak.
e. Inductive, cogent.
INSTRUCTIONS: Select the correct answer for each multiple choice question.
35. Which of the following are all nonarguments?
a. Expository passages, illustrations, predictions.
b. Generalizations, expository passages, opinions.
c. Predictions, syllogisms, warnings.
d. Conditional statements, illustrations, causal inferences.
e. Illustrations, explanations, pieces of advice.
36. Which of the following are all inductive arguments?
a. Arguments based on signs, hypothetical syllogisms, predictions.
b. Generalizations, causal inferences, arguments from analogy.
c. Arguments based on signs, arguments from authority, arguments from definition.
d. Arguments from definition, disjunctive syllogisms, categorical syllogisms.
e. Categorical syllogisms, arguments from authority, causal inferences.
37. Which of the following are all conclusion indicators?
a. For this reason, may be inferred from, seeing that.
b. Hence, since, as indicated by.
c. Accordingly, thus, it must be that.
d. We may conclude, it follows that, given that.
e. Wherefore, because, implies that.
38. In the expression, “Barack Obama was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize because he was perceived as being committed
to the resolution of international conflicts through diplomacy and not warfare,” the statement “Barack Obama was
awarded the Nobel Peace Prize” is called the:
a. Explanandum.
b. Conclusion.
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c. Antecedent.
d. Explanans.
e. Consequent.
39. In the expression “If corporate CEOs are paid exorbitant salaries, then investors are cheated,” the statement “Corporate
CEOs are paid exorbitant salaries” is called the:
a. Conditional.
b. Premise.
c. Consequent.
d. Explanans.
e. Antecedent.
40. An argument that proceeds from knowledge of a cause to a claim about an effect is:
a. A sound argument.
b. A strong argument.
c. A cogent argument.
d. An inductive argument.
e. A deductive argument.
41. An argument that proceeds from our knowledge of the past to a claim about the future is:
a. A valid argument.
b. An inductive argument.
c. A strong argument.
d. A deductive argument.
e. A cogent argument.
42. If a deductive argument has one false premise and a true conclusion, then we know:
a. The argument is invalid.
b. The argument is valid.
c. Nothing as such about the argument’s validity.
d. The argument is sound.
e. The argument is uncogent.
43. Which of the following is a sufficient condition for being a dog?
a. Having a tail.
b. Weighing at least 30 pounds.
c. Being an animal.
d. Being a collie.
e. Having fur.
44. Which of the following is a necessary condition for going ice skating?
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a. Wearing skates.
b. Driving to the ice rink.
c. Having the skates sharpened.
d. Falling down on the ice.
INSTRUCTIONS: The following problems relate to the counterexample method.
45. PART A
No symbols of equality are threats to civil order, for no gay marriages are threats to civil order, and all gay marriages are
symbols of equality.
Which of the following correctly expresses the form of this argument?
a. No S are T. b. No G are T. c. All G are S.
No G are T. All G are S. No S are T.
All G are S. No S are T. No G are T.
d. If G then T. e. All S are G.
If G then S. No G are T.
If S then T. No S are T.
PART B
Which of the following substitutions proves the argument invalid?
a. S = mammals, T = fish, G = dogs.
b. S = cats, T = fish, G = mammals.
c. G = cats, S= mammals, T = fish.
d. T = humble spirits, S = adventurous characters, G = creative individuals.
e. G = dogs, T = cats, S = animals.
46. PART A
If charter schools are expanded, then education will improve, so charter schools will be expanded, because education will
improve.
Which of the following correctly expresses the form of this argument?
a. C b. If C then E. c. If C then E.
E C E
If C then E. E C
d. All C are E. e. If C then E.
E If E then F.
C If C then F.
PART B
Which of the following substitutions proves the argument invalid?
a. C = Johnny Depp is a man, E = Johnny Depp is a human.
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b. C = George Washington was assassinated, E = George Washington is dead.
c. C = Cathy Smith was assassinated, E = Cathy Smith is dead.
d. C = mammals, E = animals.
e. C = George Washington is dead, E = Abraham Lincoln is dead.
47. PART A
Some attorneys are litigators, so some attorneys are skillful litigators, since some attorneys are skillful.
Which of the following correctly expresses the form of this argument?
a. Some A are S. b. Some A are SL. c. Some A are S.
Some A are L. Some A are L. Some A are SL.
Some A are SL. Some A are S. Some A are L.
d. Some A are not S. e. Some A are L.
Some A are not L. Some A are not S.
Some A are not SL. Some A are SL.
PART B
Which of the following substitutions proves the argument invalid?
a. A = doctors, S = highly trained, L = specialists.
b. A = women, S = caring, L = parents.
c. A = fruits, S = yellow, L = lemons.
d. A = people, S = intelligent, L = morons.
e. A = cars, S = large, L = sedans.