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INSTRUCTIONS: The following selections relate to distinguishing arguments from nonarguments and identifying
conclusions. Select the best answer for each.
1. For a long time, Haydn’s music was regarded as genial and lively, and much of its depth, wit, and brilliance went
unnoticed. This was because only a few of his compositions were performed regularly at concerts. Nowadays, however,
much more of Haydn’s music is being performed, and the extraordinary range of his achievement is being recognized.
Jeffrey Yudkin, Understanding Music, 4th edition
a. Argument; conclusion: For a long time … went unnoticed.
b. Argument; conclusion: Only a few of his compositions … at concerts.
c. Argument; conclusion: Nowadays … being performed.
d. Nonargument.
e. Argument; conclusion: The extraordinary range … is being recognized.
2. While the topical application of fluoride to children’s teeth can help reduce decay, the addition of fluoride to drinking
water is definitely not a good idea. Fluoride in drinking water has caused widespread dental fluorosis (mottled and
discolored enamel), it is a cumulative poison, which means that it builds up in bone and tissue, and it has been linked to
lower IQ in children and to Alzheimer’s disease in adults.
a. Argument; conclusion: The addition of fluoride … not a good idea.
b. Argument; conclusion: Fluoride is a cumulative poison.
c. Nonargument.
d. Argument; conclusion: The topical application of fluoride … reduce decay.
e. Argument; conclusion: It has been linked … Alzheimer’s disease in adults.
3. The aim of an experiment is not to prove that a hypothesis is correct. Rather, the aim is to demonstrate that it is highly
probable that the hypothesis is correct. Researchers ask the question in the following way: “What is the probability that
the results I have obtained could have been found by chance alone?” Hence, social psychology, like most other sciences,
deals with probabilities rather than absolutes.
Stephen Worchel, et al., Understanding Social Psychology, 5th edition
a. Argument; conclusion: Researchers ask the question … chance alone”
b. Argument; conclusion: Social psychology … probabilities rather than absolutes.
c. Argument; conclusion: Rather, the aim … probable that the hypothesis is correct.
d. Argument; conclusion: The aim of an experiment … the hypothesis is correct.
e. Nonargument.
4. If carbon dioxide levels have been rising for years, the polar ice caps are melting, the frequency and intensity of
hurricanes is increasing, and the acidity of sea water is rising, then climate change is for real, it’s not just a delusion of
leftist thinking, and the nations of the world must unite to address the threat.
a. Argument; conclusion: It’s not just a delusion of leftist thinking.
b. Argument; conclusion: The nations of the world must unite to address the threat.
c. Argument; conclusion: The polar ice caps are melting.
d. Argument; conclusion: Climate change is for real.
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5. After having a part time job for more than a year, I have gotten used to the fact that the government takes money from
me every two weeks to put toward Social Security. It isn’t fair that I should pay for some old person’s rent in Florida.
Despite my dislike of the right wing, I find the idea of privatizing appealing. I would much rather keep that money to
invest in mutual funds, stocks or my college education.
Andy Irwin, Letter to the Editor
a. Argument; conclusion: After having a part time job … toward Social Security.
b. Argument; conclusion: Despite my dislike … of privatizing appealing.
c. Nonargument.
d. Argument; conclusion: I would much rather keep … or my college education.
e. Argument; conclusion: It isn’t fair … rent in Florida.
6. Marketing to consumers via the Internet has many advantages for marketers. It allows products and services to be
offered 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. It allows products to be offered globally in an efficient manner. And it is cost
efficient, saving the need for stores, paper catalogues, and sales people.
J. Paul Peter and Jerry C. Olson, Consumer Behavior and Marketing Strategy
a. Argument; conclusion: It allows products and services … 7 days a week.
b. Argument; conclusion: It allows products to be offered … an efficient manner.
c. Argument; conclusion: It is cost efficient … and sales people.
d. Nonargument.
e. Argument; conclusion: Marketing to consumers … for marketers.
7. Hot peppers cause a burning sensation in the mouth because they contain a compound called capsaicin (or any of the
related compounds called capsaicinoids). Capsaicin is an alkaline oil that binds to pain receptors in the mucous
membrane. In some cases it produces excruciating agony. Drinking something acidic, like lemonade, helps to combat the
burning.
Anne Marie Helmenstine, About.com Guide to Chemistry
a. Nonargument.
b. Argument; conclusion: Capsaicin is an alkaline oil … mucous membrane.
c. Argument; conclusion: Hot peppers cause a burning sensation in the mouth.
d. Argument; conclusion: Drinking something acidic … combat the burning.
e. Argument; conclusion: They contain a compound … capsaicinoids).
8. The ozone layer filters out harmful ultraviolet rays from sunlight before they can reach the surface of our planet and
cause damage to humans and other life forms. Any substantial reduction in the amount of this ozone would threaten life as
we know it. Consequently, the appearance of a large “hole” in the ozone layer over Antarctica represents a major
environmental crisis.
Colin Baird and Michael Cann, Environmental Chemistry, 3rd edition
a. Argument; conclusion: Any substantial reduction … life as we know it.
b. Argument; conclusion: The appearance of a large … environmental crisis.
c. Argument; conclusion: The ozone layer … surface of our planet.
d. Argument; conclusion: The ozone layer … and other life forms.
e. Nonargument.
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9. Evolution is central to vertebrate biology because it provides a principle that organizes the diversity we see among
living vertebrates. Also it helps to fit extinct forms into the context of living species. Classification, initially a process of
attaching names to organisms, has become a method of understanding evolution.
F. Harvey Pough, et al., Vertebrate Life, 7th edition
a. Argument; conclusion: It provides a principle … among living vertebrates.
b. Argument; conclusion: Classification … a method for understanding evolution.
c. Nonargument.
d. Argument; conclusion: Evolution is central to vertebrate biology.
e. Argument; conclusion: It helps to fit … the context of living species.
10. The field of economics is divided into two major branches: microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics
studies the behavior of individual economic agents and how they interact with each other in markets. Macroeconomics
focuses on the overall level of economic activity in a society. It studies such topics as unemployment, inflation, and the
rate of economic growth.
Don E. Waldman, Microeconomics
a. Argument; conclusion: Microeconomics studies … with each other in markets.
b. Argument; conclusion: The field of economics … macroeconomics.
c. Argument; conclusion: It studies such topics … rate of economic growth.
d. Nonargument.
e. Argument; conclusion: Macroeconomics focuses … in a society.
11. The exchange of energy between an organism and its surroundings involves the transformation of one form of energy
into another. For example, when a leaf produces sugar, it converts solar energy to chemical energy in sugar molecules.
When an animal’s muscle cells use sugar as fuel to power movements, they convert chemical energy into kinetic energy.
All of the work of cells involves the transformation of chemical energy (which is ordered) into heat, which is the
unordered energy of random molecular motion.
Neil A. Campbell and Jane B. Reece, Biology, 6th edition
a. Argument; conclusion: When an animal’s muscle cells … into kinetic energy.
b. Argument; conclusion: The exchange of energy … form of energy into another.
c. Argument; conclusion: When a leaf produces sugar … in sugar molecules.
d. Argument; conclusion: All of the work of cells … random molecular motion.
e. Nonargument.
12. The rate at which a light bulb uses energy (converts electrical energy to light and heat) is usually printed on it—for
example, “100 watts.” A watt is a unit of power, which describes the rate of energy use. A power of 1 watt means that 1
joule of energy is being used each second. Hence, for every second that you leave a 100-watt light bulb turned on, you
will have to pay the utility company for 100 joules of energy.
Jeffrey Bennett, et al., The Cosmic Perspective, 3rd edition
a. Argument; conclusion: The rate at which a light bulb … printed on it.
b. Nonargument.
c. Argument; conclusion: For every second … 100 joules of energy.
d. Argument; conclusion: A power of 1 watt … used each second.
e. Argument; conclusion: A watt is a unit of power … rate of energy use.
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13. A misdemeanor is a minor criminal offense punishable by less than one year in prison. Thus, petty theft is a
misdemeanor, as is vandalism, trespassing, and prostitution. Some people convicted of misdemeanors are fined. Others
are sentenced to probation or community service.
a. Nonargument.
b. Argument; conclusion: Some people convicted of misdemeanors are fined.
c. Argument; conclusion: Petty theft is a misdemeanor … and prostitution.
d. Argument; conclusion: Others are sentenced to probation or community service.
e. Argument; conclusion: A misdemeanor … one year in prison.
14. Capitalism tends to stratify society. Those who are successful are respected and rewarded. Those who are not are
abandoned as failures. The net result is that society becomes hierarchical. This is an elitist circumstance thought desirable
by people on the right.
Leon P. Baradat, Political Ideologies
a. Argument; conclusion: Those who are successful are respected and rewarded.
b. Argument; conclusion: The net result is that society becomes hierarchical.
c. Argument; conclusion: This is an elitist circumstance … on the right.
d. Nonargument.
e. Argument; conclusion: Capitalism tends to stratify society.
15. Health can be conceptualized from medical, functional, or psychological perspectives. The medical model defines
health as an absence of illness or disease, while the functional model defines health in terms of individuals’ ability to
perform their assigned roles. The psychological model of health emphasizes physical, psychological, and social well-
being in measuring the health of individuals.
Michael P. Soroka and George J. Bryjak, Social Problems: A World at Risk
a. Nonargument.
b. Argument; conclusion: Health can be conceptualized … perspectives.
c. Argument; conclusion: The functional model … their assigned roles.
d. Argument; conclusion: The medical model … or disease.
e. Argument; conclusion: The psychological model … health of individuals.
16. The world economy is controlled by multinational corporations. The majority of them are based in the United States.
Their power in the underdeveloped nations perpetuates the dependency of many Third World nations on the United States.
Multinationals add to the tensions in Third World countries through arms sales and intervention in the domestic affairs of
host countries.
D. Stanley Eitzen and Maxine Baca Zinn, Social Problems, 9th edition
a. Argument; conclusion: The world economy … multinational corporations.
b. Argument; conclusion: Their power … on the United States.
c. Argument; conclusion: Multinationals add … affairs of host countries.
d. Nonargument.
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17. Microorganisms are an essential part of the web of life in every environment. Microorganisms in the oceans and in
bodies of fresh water capture energy from sunlight and store it in molecules that other organisms use as food. They
decompose dead organisms and waste materials from living organisms. And they even make nitrogen available to plants.
Jacquelyn C. Black, Microbiology: Principles and Explorations
a. Argument; conclusion: Microorganisms in the oceans … use as food.
b. Argument; conclusion: And they even make nitrogen available to plants.
c. Argument; conclusion: Microorganisms are an essential part … environment.
d. Argument; conclusion: They decompose dead organisms … living organisms.
e. Nonargument.
INSTRUCTIONS: The following problems relate to identifying and evaluating inductive and deductive arguments.
Select the best answer for each.
18. Scott Peterson was convicted by a jury of murdering his wife and unborn son. Therefore, he must have actually
committed these crimes.
a. Inductive, sound.
b. Inductive, strong.
c. Deductive, invalid.
d. Inductive, weak.
e. Deductive, valid.
19. If stun guns are safe, then police officers will use them. Stun guns are not safe. Therefore, police officers will not use
them.
a. Inductive, strong.
b. Inductive, weak.
c. Deductive, valid.
d. Inductive, invalid.
e. Deductive, invalid.
20. Figure A is a right triangle, and two of its sides have a length of 1 foot. Therefore, its third side is greater than 1 foot in
length.
a. Deductive, valid.
b. Deductive, invalid.
c. Inductive, strong.
d. Deductive, sound.
e. Inductive, weak.
21. Harry just bought a brand new car. Harry must have won the lottery.
a. Deductive, invalid.
b. Inductive, invalid.
c. Deductive, valid.
d. Inductive, strong.
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22. The inscription beneath the image on a one-dollar bill reads “Washington.” Therefore, the image must be that of
George Washington.
a. Deductive, invalid.
b. Deductive, valid.
c. Deductive, sound.
d. Inductive, strong.
e. Inductive, weak.
23. No nations that ignore poverty are morally developed nations. No nations that ignore poverty are models for the Third
World. Therefore, all morally developed nations are models for the Third World.
a. Inductive, weak.
b. Inductive, strong.
c. Deductive, invalid.
d. Deductive, sound.
e. Deductive, valid.
24. Of the more than 40 red wines imported from Australia, Green Valley, Old Châteaux, and Fireside Vineyards are
excellent. Thus, it must be the case that all red wines imported from Australia are excellent.
a. Deductive, valid.
b. Inductive, weak.
c. Inductive, strong.
d. Inductive, invalid.
e. Deductive, invalid.
25. The annual snowfall in Buffalo, New York, has been over 40 inches every year for the past 20 years. Therefore,
probably the snowfall in Buffalo will be over 40 inches next year.
a. Inductive, strong.
b. Deductive, sound.
c. Deductive, invalid.
d. Deductive, valid.
e. Inductive, weak.
26. The 2004 Olympic games were held in either Athens or Salt Lake City. But they were not held in Athens. Therefore,
they were held in Salt Lake City.
a. Inductive, valid.
b. Deductive, invalid.
c. Deductive, valid.
d. Inductive, strong.
e. Deductive, cogent.
27. Yuri Androvich is a blue-eyed Russian artist, and his paintings sell for over $10,000. Peter Roganov is also a blue-
eyed Russian, and he just finished art school. Thus, his paintings should sell for over $10,000, too.
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a. Inductive, strong.
b. Deductive, valid.
c. Inductive, cogent.
d. Deductive, invalid.
e. Inductive, weak.
28. Given that 2x – 1 = 13. It follows that x = 6.
a. Inductive, strong.
b. Deductive, invalid.
c. Deductive, valid.
d. Inductive, weak.
e. Deductive, sound.
29. The Washington Post carried an article on the huge hurricane that struck the Caiman Islands. The Chicago Tribune is
similar in its coverage to the Washington Post. Thus, the Chicago Tribune must have carried an article on that hurricane.
a. Deductive, sound.
b. Inductive, strong.
c. Deductive, invalid.
d. Deductive, valid.
e. Inductive, weak.
30. All essay contests are challenges that promote thinking. All challenges that promote thinking are educational
experiences. Thus, all essay contests are educational experiences.
a. Inductive, strong.
b. Deductive, invalid.
c. Inductive, weak.
d. Deductive, valid.
e. Inductive, cogent.
31. If malaria becomes drug resistant, then countless victims will perish. If malaria becomes drug resistant, then a major
health crisis will erupt. Therefore, if a major health crisis erupts, then countless victims will perish.
a. Deductive, invalid.
b. Deductive, sound.
c. Inductive, strong.
d. Inductive, weak.
e. Deductive, valid.
32. The bumper sticker on that car says “Don’t Waste Your Vote. Vote Libertarian.” Therefore, it’s clear that you should
vote for Libertarian candidates in the next election.
a. Deductive, valid.
b. Deductive, invalid.
c. Inductive, weak.
d. Inductive, cogent.
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e. Inductive, strong.
33. Maria is a hypochondriac. Therefore, she always worries about her health.
a. Inductive, strong.
b. Deductive, valid.
c. Inductive, weak.
d. Deductive, unsound.
e. Deductive, invalid.
34. Author Tim LaHaye says that the rapture (when all righteous people will be miraculously lifted up to heaven) will
occur in the not too distant future. Therefore, this event is sure to happen soon.
a. Inductive, strong.
b. Deductive, uncogent.
c. Deductive, invalid.
d. Inductive, weak.
e. Deductive, valid.
35. Which of the following are all premise indicators?
a. Hence, thus, implies that.
b. Accordingly, seeing that, inasmuch as.
c. For, given that, because.
d. As, consequently, because.
e. For the reason that, in that, wherefore.
36. Which of the following are all arguments?
a. Reports, arguments from signs, arguments from authority.
b. Causal inferences, explanations, warnings.
c. Illustrations, conditional statements, pieces of advice.
d. Syllogisms, predictions, generalizations.
e. Arguments from analogy, explanations, illustrations.
37. Which of the following are all deductive arguments?
a. Arguments from analogy, arguments based on signs, causal inferences.
b. Arguments from analogy, predictions, causal inferences.
c. Predictions, hypothetical syllogisms, arguments from authority.
d. Arguments based in mathematics, hypothetical syllogisms, generalizations.
e. Categorical syllogisms, arguments from definition, disjunctive syllogisms.
38. An argument that concludes something is true because somebody has said so is:
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a. A deductive argument.
b. An inductive argument.
c. A strong argument.
d. A valid argument.
e. A sound argument.
39. An argument whose conclusion rests on the definition of a word used in the premises is:
a. A deductive argument.
b. A valid argument.
c. A sound argument.
d. A cogent argument.
e. An inductive argument.
40. In the expression “Barack Obama was elected president because he capitalized on a bad economy,” the statement “He
capitalized on a bad economy” is called the:
a. Premise.
b. Consequent.
c. Explanans.
d. Conclusion.
e. Explanandum.
41. In the expression “If North Korea has nuclear weapons, then it poses a threat to world peace,” the statement “It poses a
threat to world peace” is called the:
a. Conditional.
b. Consequent.
c. Antecedent.
d. Explanandum.
e. Conclusion.
42. Which of the following is a necessary condition for going for a swim?
a. Treading water.
b. Doing the breaststroke.
c. Holding your breath.
d. Getting into the water.
e. Doing the backstroke.
43. Which of the following is a sufficient condition for making ice from fresh water?
a. Putting the water outside in the cold.
b. Putting the water into the freezer.
c. Pouring the water into an ice cube tray.
d. Lowering the temperature of the water below 40° F.
e. Lowering the temperature of the water to 20° F.
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44. If a deductive argument has false premises and a false conclusion, then we know:
a. Nothing as such about the argument’s validity.
b. The argument is invalid.
c. The argument is valid.
d. The argument is weak.
INSTRUCTIONS: The following problems relate to the counterexample method.
45. PART A
All spies are covert operators, so all covert operators are risk takers, for all spies are risk takers.
Which of the following correctly expresses the form of this argument?
a. All C are R. b. If S then R. c. All S are C.
All S are R. If S then C. All S are R.
All S are C If C then R. All C are R.
d. All S are C. e. All C are S.
All C are R. All R are S.
All S are R. All C are R.
PART B
Which of the following substitutions proves the argument invalid?
a. C = cats, S = dogs, R = animals.
b. S = fish, R = mammals, C = animals.
c. S = dogs, C = mammals, R = animals.
d. R= dogs, C = cats, S = animals.
e. S = cats, C = animals, R = mammals.
46. PART A
If deficits increase then the economy will stagnate. Thus, if deficits increase, then interest rates will rise, because if
interest rates rise, then the economy will stagnate.
Which of the following correctly expresses the form of this argument?
a. If D then E. b. If D then I. c. If D then I.
If D then I. If I then E. If D then E.
If I then E. If D then E. If I then E.
d. If D then E. e. If D then E.
If E then I. If I then E.
If D then I. If D then I.
PART B
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Which of the following substitutions proves the argument invalid?
a. D = Tom Hanks is a man, E = Tom Hanks is a human, I = Tom Hanks is a woman.
b. D = dogs, I = mammals, E = animals.
c. D = Bob is a physician, E = Bob is a professional, I = Bob is a doctor.
d. D = dogs, E = animals, I = cats.
e. D = Halle Berry is an actor, E = Halle Berry is a woman, I = Halle Berry is a human.
47. PART A
All corporate mergers are either success stories or fiascos. Hence, some corporate mergers are fiascos.
Which of the following correctly expresses the form of this argument?
a. All C are S. b. All CM are either S or F.
Some C are F. Some C are F.
c. Some C are F. d. All C are either S or F.
All C are either S or F. Some C are F.
e. If C then either S or F.
If C then F.
PART B
Which of the following substitutions proves the argument invalid?
a. C = mammals, F = dogs, S = cats.
b. C = dogs, S = mammals, F = fish.
c. C = animals, S = fish, F = mammals.
d. C = Leonardo DiCaprio is a man, S= Leonardo DiCaprio is a human, F = Leonardo DiCaprio is a woman.
e. C = cats, S = mammals, F = animals.