18. Complete the table below by stating whether the direction of discretionary fiscal policy was contractionary
(C), expansionary (E), or neither (N), given the hypothetical budget data for an economy.
(1)
Year
(2)
Actual budget
deficit (−) or
surplus (+)
(3)
Cyclically adjusted
budget deficit (−) or
surplus (+)
(4)
Direction of
fiscal policy
1
−3.9%
−2.1%
2
−4.5
−2.6
_____
3
−4.7
−3.0
_____
4
−3.9
−2.6
_____
5
−2.9
−2.0
_____
6
−2.2
−1.9
_____
(1)
Year
(2)
Actual budget
deficit (−) or
surplus (+)
(3)
Cyclically adjusted
budget deficit (−) or
surplus (+)
(4)
Direction of
fiscal policy
1
−3.9%
−2.1%
2
−4.5
−2.6
E
3
−4.7
−3.0
E
4
−3.9
−2.6
C
5
−2.9
−2.0
C
6
−2.2
−1.9
C
19. What does the “cyclically adjusted budget” measure and of what significance is this concept?
20. Describe the characteristics of fiscal policy from 2000 to 2007. Was it expansionary or contractionary?
21. Describe the characteristics of fiscal policy in the Great Recession. Was it expansionary or contractionary?
22. What fiscal policy actions did the U.S. government take in 2008 and 2009?
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23. Describe the characteristics of fiscal policy from 2009 to 2012. Was it expansionary or contractionary?
24. The following table shows government spending and tax revenue for a hypothetical economy over a five–
year period. All figures are in billions.
Year
Tax Revenues
1
$825
2
850
3
875
4
900
5
925
(a) In what years were there budget deficits and what were the amounts?
(b) In what year was there a budget surplus and what was the amount?
(c) What is the public debt in this economy over the five years?
(d) If the size of the economy (GDP) was $4000 billion, what would be the public debt as a percentage of
GDP?
25. The following table shows government spending and tax revenue for a hypothetical economy over a five–
year period. All figures are in billions.
Year
Tax Revenues
1
$1050
2
1100
3
1150
4
1300
5
1250
(a) In what years were there budget deficits and what were the amounts?
(b) In what year was there a budget surplus and what was the amount?
(c) What is the public debt in this economy over the five years?
(d) If the size of the economy (GDP) was $6000 billion what would the public debt in year 5 as a
percentage of GDP.
26. Comment on the statement: “Discretionary fiscal policy offers an ideal approach to dealing with the
nation’s economic problems. It is without problems, criticisms, or complications.”
27. Explain the five problems, criticisms, or complications that arise in the implementation of fiscal policy.
First there is a timing problem. Three lags are identified under the “timing problem” category. There is a
lag in recognizing the phase of the business cycle; there is an administrative lag in deciding which policies
to follow; there is an operational lag in terms of the impact of the policy once it is implemented.
28. Explain the problems giving rise to this statement: “You would think the government would want to do
something to improve economic conditions when the economy is in trouble, but the government is slow to
29. How do expectations about the future by households and businesses affect the effectiveness of fiscal
policy? Cite examples.
30. “If economic forecasting was a more exact science, the business cycle could be entirely corrected by fiscal
measures.” Do you agree?
31. What are political business cycles and how could they be created?
32. Explain the crowding-out effect.
33. What fiscal policy is most likely to be invoked during a period of recession and high unemployment? A
period of rapid inflation? What political, investment, and international problems might the U.S. Congress
encounter in enacting these policies and putting them into effect?
34. Given all the complications that can result with fiscal policy, is fiscal policy still considered an effective
policy tool for stabilizing business cycle fluctuations?
35. Differentiate between the Federal deficit and the Federal debt.
The Federal deficit is an annual concept referring to the shortfall between Federal revenues and
expenditures in one year’s budget. The Federal debt is the accumulation of borrowing which results from
the series of deficits minus any surpluses.
36. What information would be important for assessing the size of the public debt beside the absolute amount
of the public debt?
37. In 2012 the public debt was $16.4 trillion. Put this number in perspective by relating the debt to GDP, to
other countries’ debt, to the amount of interest payments on the debt, and to ownership of the debt.
38. Can the large public debt cause the nation to go bankrupt? Explain.
39. Is the public debt a burden on future generations? Explain.
The debt does not really impose a burden on future generations as long as it is held primarily by the
American people or institutions. The public debt is really a public credit. Your grandmother or your
parents’ pension fund may hold the government bonds on which taxpayers are now paying interest. Some
40. Is it possible to impose a burden on future generations by increasing the public debt?
41. Adam Smith once wrote: “What is prudence in the conduct of every private family can scarce be folly in
that of a great kingdom.” Evaluate in terms of the national debt.
42. In what fundamental way do the spending-taxation decisions of government differ from the consumption-
saving plans of households? Why is this difference significant?
43. If we as individuals would continue to spend more than we made, we would sooner or later have to pay up
or go bankrupt. Our government is in the same position or will be unless we get serious about our
liabilities and reduce expenditures enough to reduce the deficits or increase revenues enough to pay our
bills and have some left over to pay the old bills. Evaluate this statement.
To begin with, most individuals do spend more than they make for a substantial segment of their lives and
incur sizable debt. What is important is the expectation about their ability to pay. For example, a $100,000
mortgage for a wealthy person may be insignificant debt, while a $100,000 debt for someone making
44. Why is the ownership of the public debt an important issue?
45. What are four real and potential problems with the public debt?
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46. If the public debt is a debt that we owe to ourselves, then there are obviously no problems connected with
such a debt. Critically evaluate.
47. Crowding out can weaken the effect of an expansionary fiscal deficit. Explain.
48. The table below gives data on interest rates and investment demand in a hypothetical economy. Figures are
in billions.
Interest rate
Id1
Id2
7%
$500
$ 600
6
600
700
5
700
800
4
800
900
3
900
1000
(a) Use the Id1 schedule. Assume that the government needs to finance a budget deficit and this public
borrowing increases the interest rate from 5 percent to 6 percent. How much crowding-out of private
investment will occur?
(b) Now assume that the deficit is used to improve the performance of the economy, and that as a
consequence the investment-demand schedule changes from Id1 to Id2. At the same time, the interest
rate rises from 5 percent to 6 percent as the government borrows money to finance the deficit. How
much crowding-out of private investment will occur in this case?
(c) Graph the two investment-demand schedules on the graph below and show the difference between the
two events. Put the interest rate on the vertical axis and the quantity of investment demanded on the
horizontal axis.
49. What two factors could reduce the net economic burden that might be shifted to future generations from the
public debt?
50. (Last Word) What is the long-run financial problem for Social Security?
51. (Last Word) What is the long-run financial problem for Medicare?
52. (Last Word) What options have been suggested for shoring up the finances of Social Security and
Medicare? Why are they unpleasant ones to consider?