CHAPTER 20
Seizing an American Empire, 1865–1913
TRUE/FALSE
1. The United States practiced global imperialism well before the European powers.
2. Social Darwinist ideas were used to justify policies of imperial expansion.
3. The purchase of Alaska from Russia for approximately $7 million proved to be a huge
bargain.
4. The United States purchased Alaska from Great Britain.
5. Between 1875 and 1890, sugar from Hawaii could enter the United States duty-free.
6. William Randolph Hearst’s efforts to manipulate public opinion during the Spanish-American
War came to be called “yellow journalism.”
7. Later investigations confirmed that the Spanish deliberately destroyed the battleship Maine.
8. Spain refused to consider practically all of the American demands concerning Cuba before
the United States declared war.
9. Theodore Roosevelt led troops into battle in the Philippines.
10. During the Spanish-American War, more American soldiers died from disease than battle.
11. Although rooted in the hope of American businesses to dominate Chinese markets, the Open
Door policy appealed to anti-imperialists because it promised to prevent the division of China
by European nations.
12. McKinley was reelected in 1900 despite losing the popular vote to William Jennings Bryan.
13. Roosevelt refused to view the world as divided between “civilized” societies and “barbarous” societies.
14. During the 1880s, a French company convinced the United States to purchase the partially
completed Panama Canal.
15. Theodore Roosevelt called William Howard Taft’s diplomacy “dollar diplomacy” because he continued to promote
American economic interests abroad.
16. Woodrow Wilson believed the United States had no right to intervene in the affairs of other
nations and, thus, unlike the presidents who had recently preceded him, he never sent
American troops into Latin America.
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. American imperialism in the late nineteenth century was justified as a broadening of what earlier American
principle?
a.
natural rights
d.
free trade and sailor’s rights
b.
free labor and free soil
e.
manifest destiny
c.
transcendentalism
2. How did Americans’ understanding of manifest destiny change after the Civil War?
a.
Americans focused more on acquiring territory in North America than territory in other parts of the
world.
b.
Americans predominantly used the idea of manifest destiny as a basis for arguing against
imperialism.
c.
Americans rejected manifest destiny because they thought the continental United States should be
the sole provider of raw materials for industrialization.
d.
Americans embraced the idea of acquiring territories as “colonies” without the intention of making
them states.
e.
Americans felt less safe and were motivated to expand to protect themselves from their militarily
powerful neighbors in the Western Hemisphere.
3. Like Theodore Roosevelt and John Fiske, many Americans in the late nineteenth century
believed that the ________ race was superior.
a.
Anglo-Saxon
d.
Spanish
b.
Native American
e.
Asian
c.
French
4. Which of the following was a tenet of The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660–1783?
a.
The United States should remain isolated from overseas affairs and instead focus on western
expansion in its own continent.
b.
A powerful navy was essential for protecting national interests and developing global commerce.
c.
The United States had invested too much in its navy over the years and should instead focus on the
army.
d.
The United States should focus on small secret operations as opposed to large battleships and
global bases.
e.
Pursuing new markets overseas would only bring financial ruin to the United States due to
increased competition.
5. In 1878, the Samoans signed a treaty with the United States giving the United States
a.
total control of the Samoan Islands.
b.
50-percent control of the Samoan Islands.
c.
a naval base at Pago Pago.
d.
a thirty-year lease on Pago Pago.
e.
all of Samoa, including Wake Island.
6. American interest in Hawaii during the late-nineteenth century was in part because of trade
in what commodity?
a.
tobacco
d.
sugar
b.
indigo
e.
fish and other seafood
c.
pineapples
7. Which of the following statements describes how the native Hawaiian population fared by
the 1890s, following the American presence in Hawaii?
a.
The native Hawaiian population’s quality of living rose dramatically, as they became the primary
laborers in U.S. sugar production and earned higher wages than they had previously.
b.
Although trade agreements with the Americans produced economic troubles, native Hawaiians
remained dominant over the Americans simply because their population was so much greater.
c.
Diseases such as smallpox caused the native Hawaiian population to decrease such that it was only
a minority, with Asian immigrants, who often worked as cheap labor, as the largest ethnic group.
d.
The native Hawaiian population suffered because the United States never agreed to sign a trade
agreement with its leaders, and crops grown there were restricted from entering the United States.
e.
The native Hawaiian population successfully prevented the introduction of Christian missionaries
to the islands, and instead, the Americans adopted much of Hawaiian culture as their own.
8. Which of the following statements accurately describes the role of Queen Liliuokalani in the interactions between
the native Hawaiian population and Americans?
a.
Americans living in Hawaii forced her to claim the Hawaiian throne and establish a monarchy.
b.
Convinced it would benefit the economy, she welcomed American planters to Hawaii.
c.
Most Hawaiians approved of American annexation, so she felt compelled to appease the
Americans.
d.
She opposed and attempted to restrict the growing political power of American planters in Hawaii.
e.
She worked closely with U.S. ambassador John L. Stevens to transform Hawaii into a democratic
nation.
9. Which of the following occurred when the American-led overthrow of the Hawaiian
monarchy in the early 1890s was improperly done?
a.
Japan came in and took control of the islands as its own colony, initiating a wave of Japanese
immigration that would transform the makeup of the population on Hawaii.
b.
President Cleveland preferred that the monarchy be restored to power after an investigation
revealed that native Hawaiians opposed annexation, but white Hawaiians resisted.
c.
Native Hawaiians once again became the dominant political force and held control of the islands
for the next fifty years, thanks to Cleveland’s sense of indifference.
d.
Hawaii immediately became a U.S. colony because native Hawaiians had become so accustomed to
and preferential toward American rule.
e.
Cleveland stabilized the new government by sending in the marines, and a new monarchy with a
white Hawaiian as its head was established.
10. What was a reason why the United States intervened in the Cuban War for Independence?
a.
American leaders wanted to protect the Spanish economy and destroy the Cuban economy in an
effort to benefit their own.
b.
Americans, ironically, were incensed by the brutal imperialism Spain exercised over Cuba, even
though they were engaged in their own imperialism.
c.
American leaders deemed guerrilla warfare inhumane and wished to assist Spain by using other
methods.
d.
President McKinley was initially eager to rush into war, despite Theodore Roosevelt’s insistence
that he take caution.
e.
The Spanish government refused to meet any American demands regarding its control over Cuba
after the sinking of an American battleship.
11. What is “yellow journalism”?
a.
It was a derogatory insult directed by many Americans toward Japanese journalists in the early
twentieth century.
b.
It refers to the practice by many financially struggling newspapers of using recycled, yellowed
newsprint during the 1890s depression.
c.
It refers to sensationalist news coverage that was designed to sell papers and manipulate public
opinion.
d.
It speaks to the use of propaganda in underground newspapers published by the Cuban
insurrectionists.
e.
It refers to the “scared” journalists who filed their stories from Key West, Florida, during the
Spanish-American War.
12. What was the significance of the de Lôme letter?
a.
It revealed the location of Spanish troops in Cuba and, thus, helped the United States win the
Spanish-American War.
b.
It was the first of the Cuban insurrectionists’ overtures for peace, signaling that the Spanish–
American war was finally winding down.
c.
It blamed the destruction of the battleship Maine on Spanish agents, which gave President
McKinley the support he needed to declare war.
d.
In it, a Spaniard referred to President McKinley as a weak and cowardly leader, which increased the
likelihood of war with Spain.
e.
It promised Mexico all of the Gadsden Purchase if they attacked Texas, transforming the southern
border of the United States.
13. Which of the following was true of the battleship Maine?
a.
It became famous for sinking the entire Spanish fleet in Manila without a single American loss of
life.
b.
It exploded in Havana Harbor, allegedly because of the Spanish, and fueled calls for war with
Spain.
c.
It carried arms from the United States to the Cuban insurrectionists during the first battle of the war.
d.
It disappeared at sea with no trace, but newspaper reporters claimed that Cuban rebels had ordered
to sink it.
e.
It delivered Teddy Roosevelt and the Rough Riders from Tampa to Cuba and carried much of their
ammunition.
14. What was one reason the United States went to war against Spain?
a.
The leaders of the Democratic party pushed for war.
b.
Cuban cigar manufacturers in Florida insisted that war was necessary to protect their markets.
c.
There was strong support among the American people for going to war.
d.
The shipping profiteers in New England believed their prosperity depended on war.
e.
Theodore Roosevelt insisted his Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine demanded war.
15. Which of the following was true of the Teller Amendment?
a.
It was added to an army appropriation bill in 1901.
b.
It called for universal suffrage in America’s new possessions.
c.
It was defeated in the Senate.
d.
It disavowed any American designs on Cuban territory.
e.
It was promptly vetoed by McKinley.
16. Why has the Spanish-American War been renamed the War of 1898?
a.
It lasted nearly all of the 1880s, culminating in 1898.
b.
The Spanish initially started the war but soon dropped out of it.
c.
In the last phase of the war, Spain and the United States were on the same side.
d.
The Spanish-American War predominantly took place in the Indian Ocean.
e.
Cubans, Puerto Ricans, and Filipinos also engaged in the fighting.
17. Who was Emilio Aguinaldo?
a.
He was the Filipino rebel leader.
b.
He led the Spanish forces at San Juan Hill.
c.
He was installed as Cuba’s governor in 1898.
d.
He was the martyred leader of the Cuban rebellion.
e.
He became the face of resistance in Samoa.
18. Why has the Rough Riders’ charge of Kettle Hill become one of the most famous incidents
of the Spanish-American War?
a.
The unit was nearly destroyed in the attempt.
b.
The charge was the last act of the war.
c.
The unit acted against direct orders.
d.
Theodore Roosevelt was second–in-command and led the attack.
e.
The charge was caught on film by an early movie camera.
19. Which of the following did Theodore Roosevelt do during the Spanish-American War?
a.
He served as secretary of the navy.
b.
He was a war correspondent for the New York Journal.
c.
He fought in Puerto Rico.
d.
He destroyed the Spanish fleet at Manila Bay.
e.
He took part in the land fighting in Cuba.
20. What was a result of the Treaty of Paris?
a.
The Spanish Empire in the Americas ended.
b.
The start of the Spanish-American war became more likely.
c.
The Philippines gained its independence.
d.
The prospect of a United States empire became far less likely.
e.
Spain annexed Puerto Rico.
21. Which of the following was a result of the Spanish-American War?
a.
The Untied States was deeply divided between war supporters and opponents.
b.
The United States acquired Cuba as a colony and prospered due to its staple crops.
c.
The United States emerged as an imperial power, along with the reinforcement of racist attitudes.
d.
The United States suffered a huge financial strain and went into a deep depression.
e.
The United States acquired Alaska as a consolation prize.
22. Despite the official religion of the Philippines having been ________, American missionaries
were eager to win converts there and argued they needed to Christianize the Filipinos.
a.
Buddhist
d.
Roman Catholic
b.
Animism
e.
Anglican
c.
Muslim
23. What was a major reason why the United States annexed the Philippines despite anti-imperialist opposition in the
United States?
a.
Filipino leader Emilio Aguinaldo requested annexation due to the belief it would help the economy.
b.
The Philippine islands were located very close to China and China’s potential markets.
c.
Anti-imperialist William Jennings Bryan agreed to become the civil governor of the territory.
d.
Americans wanted to avenge their defeat in the Philippine-American War.
e.
The Philippines offered the most developed untapped market in the entire Eastern Hemisphere.
24. Which of the following was the territory in Latin America that the United States acquired as a
result of the Spanish-American War?
a.
Puerto Rico
d.
Haiti
b.
Panama
e.
Costa Rica
c.
Guam
25. Which of the following was true of the treaty ending the Spanish-American War?
a.
It initially experienced opposition from some who argued that it would violate the longstanding
American principle that people should be self-governing.
b.
William Jennings Bryan prevented its ratification despite the calls from Senate Democrats to pass it
through immediately.
c.
It provided for Spain to pay a large sum of money for each American soldier killed in the war as
part of reparations.
d.
President McKinley’s sole objective was to grant independence to the Philippines because many
Americans identified with the struggles Filipinos had gone through.
e.
There was little debate surrounding the treaty because the United States had already started and was
focused on another large war.
26. Why did the United States fight a war in the Philippines after the Spanish-American War?
a.
to oust the remaining Spanish forces that had refused to evacuate from the island
b.
to stop Japan from annexing the islands
c.
to quell an insurrection of Filipinos who opposed annexation by the United States
d.
to defeat the Boxer Rebellion
e.
to avenge the Russian surprise attack on Manila
27. The Philippine-American War became known for
a.
the lack of violence in the conflict.
b.
its status as the first American defeat in a foreign war.
c.
the absence of civilian casualties.
d.
the contributions of Theodore Roosevelt’s “Rough Riders.”
e.
its brutality and the atrocities committed by both sides.
28. The “water cure” refers to
a.
Walter Reed’s prescription for dealing with malaria based on his research in Cuba.
b.
a torture technique used by American forces in the war with the Philippines.
c.
a joking expression referring to Commodore Dewey’s one-sided naval victory against the Spanish.
d.
Alfred Thayer Mahan’s suggestion that strong navies help support prosperous empires.
e.
a method of hydrating horses who suffered from heat stroke during campaigns in tropical climates.
29. In 1900, which of the following did the Foraker Act establish?
a.
the full U.S. citizenship of residents of Puerto Rico
b.
citizenship of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico for residents
c.
the eligibility of the Philippines for statehood
d.
the right of the United States to use Guantanamo Bay
e.
dual Spanish and American citizenship for Filipinos
30. Which of the following was a result of the Spanish-American War?
a.
Puerto Rico and Guam became states in which residents could vote in U.S. presidential elections
but were denied the ability to pay taxes for government services.
b.
Newly acquired territories lacked statehood, but all residents gained full representation in Congress
and the ability to vote in presidential elections.
c.
Despite having promised Cubans independence, the United States gained Cuba as a territory and
did little to curb the spread of widespread disease there.
d.
The United States gained strategic territories in the Pacific and Latin America without
acknowledging the people of those territories as having full representation in the republic.
e.
The United States gained the Panama Canal Zone in Central America, which linked the East Coast
to California, because of Panama’s role in the war.
31. What was the purpose of the Platt Amendment?
a.
It granted U.S. citizenship to inhabitants of Puerto Rico.
b.
It arranged for a Cuban election to decide the issue of annexation.
c.
It sharply restricted the independence of Cuba’s new government.
d.
It set up the Army Yellow Fever Commission in Cuba.
e.
It called for Spain to pay for all war reparations.
32. What effect did the Spanish-American War have on the stance of the U.S. government on Asia?
a.
The U.S. government decided to assist the Boxer rebels in China, much as it had assisted the Cuban
rebels.
b.
The U.S. government decided to pursue interests in Asia on its own rather than collaborating with
Great Britain.
c.
The U.S. government successfully prevented Japanese military expansion throughout the first half
of the eighteenth century.
d.
The U.S. government supported the plan of powerful European nations to split China among
themselves.
e.
The U.S. government took measures to end most trade with Asia because it found European trade to
be more profitable.
33. What was the purpose of the Open Door policy?
a.
It allowed a certain number of Japanese immigrants into the United States in exchange for trading
rights.
b.
It allowed Cubans to enter the United States and Americans to enter Cuba freely to benefit the
economy.
c.
It proposed that foreign powers keep China trade open to all European and American nations on an
equal basis.
d.
It pledged aid to struggling Latin American republics out of solidarity with the United States’ “next
door” neighbors.
e.
It closed Chinese immigration except for spouses and children of men already in the United States.
34. Where did the Boxer Rebellion take place?
a.
Japan
d.
Panama
b.
Morocco
e.
China
c.
Colombia
35. Which of the following statements about the Boxer Rebellion is accurate?
a.
The rebels proved successful in securing the end of European influence on mainland China and
deterring further expansionism in the Pacific.
b.
The rebellion led to Secretary of State John Hay issuing the “Open Door” policy, with the United
States taking control of much of China.
c.
Chinese nationalists led the rebellion because they resented foreign influence within China,
especially Christian missionary efforts.
d.
Chinese merchants led the rebellion because they had a stake in foreign trade and wanted to
overthrow the isolationist government of China.
e.
The rebellion led to the ousting of Spanish forces from China during the early stages of the
Spanish-American War.
36. Why was Theodore Roosevelt picked as William McKinley’s running mate for the 1900 election?
a.
Roosevelt was a master of the spoils system and was bribed into entering politics by his
acquaintances in Big Business.
b.
Roosevelt’s calm and conservative approach to politics nicely balanced McKinley’s more radical
inclinations.
c.
McKinley was secretly suffering from a fatal disease, and Republican leaders wanted Roosevelt to
succeed him.
d.
Roosevelt was a popular figure from his exploits in the Spanish-American War and had been a
strong public supporter of McKinley.
e.
Roosevelt’s strict focus on domestic affairs as opposed to world affairs was viewed as necessary
after the Spanish-American War.
37. In the election of 1900, the McKinley-Roosevelt ticket campaigned on a platform that
a.
opposed the annexation of the Philippines out of respect for the rights of Filipinos.
b.
advocated for protecting Native Americans and promoted lax immigration policies.
c.
supported American territorial acquisitions following the Spanish-American War.
d.
advocated “free silver” and higher taxes, which were seen as socialistic policies.
e.
pushed for statehood for Cuba and Puerto Rico to increase the U.S. population.
38. Which of the following was true of the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty Treaty?
a.
It ended the Spanish-American War and resulted in the expansion of the United States.
b.
It ended the insurrection in the Philippines and gave the Americans less influence.
c.
It concerned America’s right to build a canal in Panama with British consent.
d.
It gave the United States permission to build a railroad through Canada.
e.
It made the purchase of Alaska possible, ending the intense competition over control of the region.
39. Which of the following occurred when the United States and Colombia could not agree on a
price for the Canal Zone?
a.
The matter was submitted to an international board for arbitration.
b.
Roosevelt sent the army to Colombia to force Colombian leaders to accept the American offer.
c.
The United Fruit Co. brought in Venezuelan and American mercenaries.
d.
Colombian leaders offered the deal to the British.
e.
The United States lent support to a separatist rebellion in the Colombian province of Panama.
40. In order to acquire the Canal Zone, the United States supported Panama’s revolt against
a.
Mexico.
d.
Costa Rica.
b.
Venezuela.
e.
Nicaragua.
c.
Colombia.
41. Why was the Roosevelt Corollary significant?
a.
It was at odds with the Monroe Doctrine in that it created alliances between the United States and
European powers for various joint initiatives.
b.
It asserted the right of the United States to intervene in Latin America to prevent the military
involvement of other countries there.
c.
It granted the United States the resources needed to fight in the Russo-Japanese War as a means of
gaining control of Korea.
d.
It released the United States from its role as an “international police power” and emphasized the
need to focus on domestic concerns.
e.
It canceled the debt various Latin American countries owed to the United States banks and
established new trade agreements between the countries.
42. Which of the following was a result of Japan’s show of strength in the Russo-Japanese War?
a.
America was quick to send money and support troops to aid Russia.
b.
Congress voted to send financial and military aid to Korea to help prevent a Japanese invasion.
c.
Congress lifted the limitations it had previously set on Japanese immigration.
d.
Americans began to doubt the security of the Philippines.
e.
Americans cut a deal with Korea to protect the Open Door.
43. What was the “yellow peril”?
a.
a mosquito-borne disease
b.
a late nineteenth-century style of politically influential journalism
c.
a racially charged description of a perceived threat from Japan
d.
a racially charged description of Panama
e.
another name for tuberculosis
44. What was the purpose of Roosevelt’s “Gentlemen’s Agreement”?
a.
It stopped the flow of Japanese immigrants to America.
b.
It acknowledged Japan’s dominance of Korea.
c.
It agreed not to bring American armed forces into the Russo-Japanese War.
d.
It agreed to help finance the Russian effort to seize Korea from the Chinese.
e.
It stopped the intrusion of Christian missionaries into Korea.
45. Why did Theodore Roosevelt send the Great White Fleet on a world tour between 1907 and 1909?
a.
to conquer new colonial territories for the United States
b.
to fight the Japanese effort to conquer the Philippines
c.
to demonstrate that the United States had arrived as a world power
d.
to defeat the Boxer Rebellion in Peking
e.
to avenge the surprise Russian attack on U.S. forces in Manila Bay
46. William Howard Taft used the State Department to
a.
create new colonies.
b.
help the British hold on to their colonies.
c.
make Puerto Rico become a state.
d.
form the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).
e.
allow American companies and banks to invest in foreign countries.
47. Why was Roosevelt’s approach to foreign policy problematic in hindsight?
a.
He was reluctant to use force in support of American goals.
b.
His efforts to deploy American power abroad were accompanied by a racist ideology.
c.
He was too much of an isolationist to ensure American national security.
d.
His egalitarian views clouded his understanding of American interests.
e.
He was never formally educated and knew little about his foreign allies.
48. Which of the following statements accurately describes American foreign policy in Latin
American countries in the first twenty years of the twentieth century?
a.
It demonstrated the commitment of the United States to preventing human rights abuses and the
receptiveness of these countries to American aid.
b.
It demonstrated American willingness to intervene in a nation’s internal affairs to promote
American interests.
c.
It was characterized by Americans’ willingness to rely on Europeans to take the lead in
interventions as a means of preserving American resources.
d.
It was characterized by a respect for the sovereignty of other nations that fostered mutual respect
and helped bring about economic cooperation.
e.
It made sure that any foreign interventions were calculated and rare, especially during Wilson’s
presidency which saw far fewer interventions than Taft’s.
49. Mexico’s revolutionary leader who successfully took control of Mexico City in 1911 was
quickly ousted by
a.
Porfirio Díaz.
d.
Francisco Madero.
b.
Pancho Villa.
e.
Valeriano Weyler.
c.
Victoriano Huerta.
50. In 1916, ________ led a force north from Mexico into the United States and attacked the
town of Columbus, New Mexico in an attempt to provoke an American intervention south of
the border.
a.
Porfirio Díaz
d.
Valeriano Weyler
b.
Pancho Villa
e.
Francisco Madero
c.
Victoriano Huerta
51. Which of the following was a result of the intervention of the United States in Mexico?
a.
Wilson spent the rest of his presidency on the intervention and virtually ignored the war in Europe.
b.
Mexicans celebrated the American troops as liberators who saved them from a terrible disaster.
c.
The Rough Riders suffered a terrible, final defeat during the Battle of San Juan Hill.
d.
Until the 1940s, Americans maintained a strong military presence in Mexico and governed
Veracruz.
e.
American troops were sent home after unsuccessfully chasing Pancho Villa’s army for almost a
year.
ESSAY
1. What were the reasons for American expansionism at the turn of the twentieth century?
What justifications did Americans offer for expansionism?
2. To what extend had the United States become an empire by the end of Theodore Roosevelt’s presidency?
3. Describe the steps leading to America’s war with Spain in 1898. Was war justified?
4. Compare the arguments of those who favored annexing the Philippines with those who
opposed it. Evaluate which position was stronger and why.
5. What was the Open Door policy, and how did it come about?
6. What were some of the factors that led to Theodore Roosevelt’s climb to the presidency of
the United States? Explain why he was such an appealing vice presidential candidate in 1900.
7. Describe the controversy surrounding the building of the Panama Canal. How were the obstacles
in the canal controversy overcome?
8. Discuss the Roosevelt Corollary and what impact it had on President Roosevelt’s foreign policy, especially as it
pertained to Latin America.
9. What were the consequences of the Spanish American War for the United States and its place
within the world?
10. Compare and contrast U.S. foreign policy in Latin America during the presidencies of Theodore Roosevelt, William
Taft, and Woodrow Wilson.
MATCHING
Match each description with the item below.
a.
was secretary of state under McKinley and Roosevelt and called the Spanish–American War “a
splendid little war”
b.
was a presidential candidate in 1900 who condemned the conflict with Filipino nationalists as “an
unnecessary war”
c.
wrote Our Country and applied the concept of “natural selection” to American foreign policy
d.
negotiated an agreement with Japan concerning the future of Korea and was said to practice “dollar
diplomacy”
e.
led a nationalist rebellion against American forces in the Philippines and was named president there
f.
owned the New York Journal and believed in the power of newspapers to shape public opinion and
legislation
g.
proved that mosquitoes carry yellow fever and led a commission that helped enable effective
control of the disease
h.
wrote The Influence of Sea Power upon History and was president of the U.S. Naval War College
i.
opposed the growth of American influence in Hawaii but was overthrown by haoles
j.
captured Manila Bay without having any soldiers go onshore
1. William Jennings Bryan
2. Walter Reed
3. George Dewey
4. John Hay
5. William Randolph Hearst
6. Alfred Thayer Mahan
7. Emilio Aguinaldo
8. Queen Liliuokalani
9. Josiah Strong
10. William Howard Taft