CHAPTER 6 Nonconsequentialist Theories: Do Your Duty
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Kant’s Ethics
A. The Categorical Imperative
1. Perfect Duties
2. Imperfect Duties
B. The Means-Ends Principle
C. Applying the Theory
D. Evaluating the Theory
II. Learning from Kant’s Theory
III. Natural Law Theory
A. Nature and the Moral Law
B. The Doctrine of Double Effect
C. Applying the Theory
D. Evaluating the Theory
IV. Learning from Natural Law
1. A categorical imperative tells us
a. what to do if we have certain desires.
b. that we should always perform our imperfect duties.
c. that we should do something in all situations regardless of our wants and needs.
d. what our hypothetical duties are.
2. Kant believes that every action implies
a. a hypothetical moral agent. c. a general rule, or maxim.
b. an imperfect duty. d. a conditional law.
3. The difference between hypothetical and categorical imperatives is that
a. hypothetical imperatives are universal, whereas categorical imperatives are not.
b. hypothetical imperatives are rational and categorical imperatives are conditional.
c. hypothetical imperatives are absolutist, whereas categorical imperatives are not.
d. hypothetical imperatives are conditional, whereas categorical imperatives are unconditional.
4. Kant would say that using a person to achieve some end, such as hiring someone to paint
your house, is not necessarily wrong because
a. every situation is different.
b. exceptions are made for people who are not our friends.
c. there is no moral difference between treating persons as a means and treating them merely, or only, as a means.
d. there is a moral difference between treating persons as a means and treating them merely, or only, as a means.
5. Applying the first formulation of the categorical imperative to the act of lying to a friend
would show that the action is impermissible because
a. the action’s maxim cannot be universalized.
b. performing the action would treat the friend as an end, not as a means.
c. performing the action would treat the friend as a means to an end.
d. the action’s maxim can be universalized.
6. Applying the second formulation of the categorical imperative to the act of lying to a friend
on important matters would show that the action is impermissible because
a. performing the action would treat the friend merely as a means to an end.
b. performing the action would treat the friend as an end, not as a means.
c. the action cannot be performed.
d. the action leads to impermissible consequences.
7. Like many moral theories, Kant’s system fails to
a. articulate its main features.
b. provide principles for action.
c. provide an effective means for resolving major conflicts of duties.
d. take personal autonomy into account.
8. Consider this comment from the philosopher C. D. Broad regarding Kant’s means-ends
principle: “If we isolate a man who is a carrier of typhoid, we are treating him merely as a
cause of infection to others. But, if we refuse to isolate him, we are treating other people
merely as means to his comfort and culture.” This example suggests that
a. our duties not to use people merely as a means can conflict, and Kant provides no counsel on how to resolve such dilemmas.
b. our duties not to use people merely as a means can sometimes be difficult to discern, but they never actually conflict.
c. our duties not to use people merely as a means are imperfect duties.
d. our duties are always clear upon further reflection.
9. A serious criticism of Kant’s theory is that it
a. ignores the possibility that God exists.
b. allows too much subjectivity in moral decision making.
c. relies too much on consequences.
d. is too specific about how to state a rule describing an action.
10. Kant’s theory emphasizes three of morality’s most important features; the three are
a. universality, impartiality, and the consequences of actions.
b. respect for persons, absolutism, and subjectivity.
c. self-interest, moral consensus, and moral authority.
d. universality, impartiality, and respect for persons.
11. According to Aquinas, the first precept of natural law theory is
a. do what is in your own best interests.
b. good is to be done and promoted, and evil is to be avoided.
c. avoid harm to others and yourself.
d. good and evil are to be defined by religion.
12. Aquinas says that judging the rightness of actions is a matter of
a. determining what consequences result from actions.
b. consulting our feelings and seeing which way our emotive consciousness points.
c. consulting church authorities.
d. consulting reason and considering rational grounds for moral beliefs.
13. Many philosophers insist that the teleological character of nature has never been supported by
logical argument or empirical science because
a. the church has disagreed with science.
b. scientists have been uninterested in teleology.
c. natural law theory is internally illogical.
d. nature is not teleological at all, but instead random and purposeless.
14. The absolutism of natural law theory (that is, the fact that some actions are always wrong
[or right] regardless of circumstances) would not bother
a. Aquinas. c. an act-utilitarian.
b. Mill. d. an ethical egoist.
15. In natural law theory, the emphasis on reason makes morality independent of
a. logic. c. history and common practice.
b. psychology. d. religion and belief in God.
TRUE/FALSE
1. Kant says that some duties generated by the categorical imperative are absolute. They are perfect duties. So, regarding the perfect duty
not to lie, Kant would insist that lying is permitted if the only way to prevent the deaths of several innocent people is to lie.
2. According to Kant, it is morally permissible to treat a server in a restaurant as a means to the
end of buying food.
3. A pregnant woman has cancer and will die unless she receives chemotherapy to destroy the tumors.
If she takes the chemotherapy to destroy the tumors, the fetus will die. According to the doctrine of double effect, it is not morally
permissible for her to do so.
4. Natural law theorists claim that humans naturally incline toward procreation, which implies that
the use of contraceptives is always wrong.
5. According to natural law theory, it would be morally permissible to abort a woman’s fetus to
save her life.
6. Suppose a ninety-year-old man is dying of cancer and is in excruciating pain that no medicine can relieve. He asks to be given a lethal
injection. According to the doctrine of double effect, giving the injection is not morally permissible.
SHORT ANSWER
1. According to Kant’s theory, duties that absolutely must be followed without fail are
known as ________.
2. The idea that we must always treat people (including ourselves) as ends in themselves, never
merely as things of instrumental value, is known as the ________ principle.
3. The moral theory that says the morally right action is the one that follows the dictates of
nature is known as ________.
4. The doctrine of ________ is the principle that performing a good action may be permissible
even if it has bad effects, but performing a bad action for the purpose of achieving good
effects is never permissible.