CHAPTER 7
HOW DO I REASON WITH MY AUDIENCE?
True or False
7-1 The reasoning process in argumentation is most commonly found in the warrant step
7-2 When we reason, we make inferences about the relationship between the grounds
and the claim these grounds support.
7-3 Argument from cause suggests a temporal connection between events in which one
comes before the other.
7-4 “Since the Pegasus, a wide bodied jetliner with serious design flaws, has a record of
crashing more frequently than any other wide bodied commercial jetliner, we are safe in
assuming that these crashes are caused by design flaws,” is an example of argument from
sign.
7-5 In testing the validity of the argument provided in question 4, we would attempt to
determine if the cause, design flaws, was sufficient to produce the effect, crashes.
7-6 In testing the validity of the argument provided in question 4, we would attempt to
determine if other factors, such as weather or pilot error, might impede or negate
establishment of a causal relationship between design flaws and crashes.
7-7 Any two phenomena that occur in sequence possess a cause-effect relationship to
7-8 Causes are observable symptoms, conditions, or marks used to prove that a certain
7-9 Statistics are often interpreted through sign reasoning.
7-10 Argument from sign analyzes a situation, while argument from cause describes a
situation.
7-11 A generalization is a form of deductive reasoning.
7-12 When you make a generalization, you look at the details of examples, specific
cases, and occurrences and infer that what is true of them is true of the entire class they
represent.
7-13 Generalizations reason that, on the basis of two or more similar events or cases,
what is true of case one will also be true of case two.
7-14 “Since the Pegasus, a wide bodied commercial jetliner has been shown to have
serious design flaws, it is reasonable to assume that other wide bodied commercial
jetliners, such as the Valkyrie, have serious design flaws,” is an example of argument
from parallel case.
7-15 The strength of the argument offered in question 14 would rest on the extent to
which the two aircraft are similar. Insofar as they are different, the argument is
weakened.
7-16 Argument from parallel case is just another name for argument from analogy.
7-17 Argument from analogy is one of the strongest forms of argument.
7-18 Analogies are most useful in illustrating, clarifying, or making an argument more
7-19 Argument from authority relies on the credibility and expertise of the source to
warrant acceptance of a claim.
7-20 Arguments from dilemma are built with two or more arguments from cause that
Multiple Choice
7-1 In reasoning from __________, phenomena are connected along a time line, the one
which occurs first acts as the generative agent which brings the second into being.
(a) definition
(b) dilemma
(c) cause
(d) sign
7-2 What type of reasoning is used in the following argument?
There is every reason to believe that the concussion crisis in NFL football will get worse.
The speed and size of professional athletes have made American football more
dangerous. Offensive linemen now average nearly 315 pounds—65 more pounds than
they did 30 years ago. They launch that weight from a three-point stance, headfirst, at
opposing linemen of nearly the same size. The impact of two such massive players
produces a concussion in the cranium when the brain bangs against the skull. Professor of
Neurology at Boston University, Dr. Ann McKee, notes, “when helmets clash, the head
decelerates instantly, yet the brain continues to lurch forward, like a driver who jams the
brakes on. Even though the skull is protected by a helmet, the brain itself is still in motion
and a concussion is often the result.”
(a) Argument from dilemma.
(b) Argument from authority.
(c) Argument from cause.
(d) Argument from generalization.
7-3 In testing the validity of the argument in question 2, you would be well advised to
ask (a) is the asserted relationship between the grounds and the effect consistent, or are
there instances in which the effect has not followed from these grounds?
(b) are sufficient case or instances cited as grounds to ensure the reliability of the
generalization?
(c) how similar are the cases cited and are the similarities cited key factors?
(d) is this truly an either-or situation?
7-4 Which of the following is NOT a test of argument from cause?
(a) Is the cause capable of producing the effect?
(b) Is the effect produced by the cause or did it occur coincidentally with the cause?
(c) Can the symptom in question be taken as reliable?
(d) Has such an effect always followed such a cause?
7-5 Reasoning from __________ relies on observable symptoms, conditions, or marks
that tell us what is the case.
(a) parallel case
(b) analogy
(c) generalization
(d) sign
7-6 The following argument is an example of __________ reasoning.
CLAIM: Athletes receive preferential treatment in some classes.
GROUNDS: Members of the football team are allowed to miss classes without incurring
the penalties imposed on non-athletes who miss classes.
WARRANT: These conditions suggest preferential treatment of the athlete over the nonathlete
by some professors.
BACKING: Preferential treatment in the classroom is commonly recognized as being
allowed to miss classes without penalty and being allowed extra time for exams.
(a) cause
(b) sign
(c) generalization
(d) parallel case
7-7 In testing the validity of the argument in question 6, you would be well advised to
ask (a) do the grounds reliably point to the conclusion drawn and not some alternative
conclusion?
(b) are sufficient case or instances cited as grounds to ensure the reliability of the
generalization?
(c) how similar are the cases cited and are the similarities cited key factors?
(d) is this truly an either-or situation?
7-8 Reasoning from __________ relies upon whether or not the condition or mark cited
can be taken as reliable proof.
(a) cause
(b) sign
(c) parallel case
(d) generalization
7-9 Which of the following is a test of argument from sign?
(a) Is the sign capable of producing the effect?
(b) Is the effect produced by the sign or did it occur coincidentally with the sign?
(c) Can the sign in question be taken as reliable?
(d) Has such an effect always followed such a sign?
7-10 Reasoning from __________ is a form of induction which uses the details of
examples, specific cases, or situations and makes predictions about an entire class.
(a) parallel case
(b) analogy
(c) generalization
(d) sign
7-11 Which of the following is NOT a test of argument from generalization?
(a) Have a sufficient number of cases or instances been cited?
(b) Are the instances cited representative of all members of the group?
(c) Are the cases similar in important, non-trivial factors?
(d) Are the cases or instances taken from a random sample of the group’s population?
7-12 Reasoning from __________ makes a figurative comparison between case that are
essentially dissimilar.
(a) analogy
(b) parallel case
(c) dilemma
(d) definition
7-13 “North Korean leader Kim Jong Il’s claim about what his country will do with
nuclear weapons can best be understood in terms of the character Darth Vader in the Star
Wars trilogy. North Korea is the Death Star of the Pacific Rim.” This statement reflects
the reasoning pattern termed
(a) parallel case.
(b) analogy.
(c) generalization.
(d) authority.
7-14 In testing the validity of the argument in question 13, you would well advised to ask
(a) are the dissimilarities between the leader of a country and a fictional movie
character so great as to adversely influence perception of the implied similarities in
the analogy?
(b) are sufficient cases of instances cited as grounds to ensure the reliability of the
generalization?
(c) is the relationship described consistent with the views of a majority or minority
of experts in the field?
7-15 “The war against the Taliban is like the popular card game of Texas Hold ‘Em in
which the terrorists consistently out bluff the Obama Administration.” This statement
reflects the reasoning pattern known as
(a) parallel case.
(b) generalization.
(c) analogy.
(d) authority.
7-16 In testing the validity of the argument in question 15, you would be well advised to
ask (a) are the war against terrorism and a card game sufficiently similar in all
important ways for the analogy to hold up?
(b) are sufficient cases of instances cited as grounds to ensure the reliability of the
generalization?
(c) is the relationship described consistent with the views of a majority or minority
of experts in the field?
(d) All of the above
7-17 An argument from __________ relies on the credibility and expertise of the source
to warrant acceptance of a claim.
(a) parallel case.
(b) generalization.
(c) analogy.
(d) authority.
7-18 Which of the following is a test of argument from authority?
(a) Is the source a qualified expert in the field by reason of training, experience, or
background?
(b) Is the statement made within the context of the authority’s area of expertise?
(c) Is the authority unbiased?
(d) All of the above
7-19 The pattern of reasoning based on creating an either-or choice is
(a) analogy.
(b) parallel case.
(c) dilemma.
(d) cause.
7-20 “If I stay in school, I’ll be tens of thousands of dollars in debt by the time I
graduate. If I drop out of school, I won’t be able to land a high–paying job.” This is an
example of an argument from
(a) sign.
(b) cause.
(c) dilemma.
(d) generalization.