CHAPTER 2
WHERE DO I BEGIN IN ARGUMENTATION?
True or False
2-1 The basic mental structure of the reasoning process is one of the elements in
argumentation that is field invariant.
2-2 If something in argumentation is field dependent, this means it’s a concept such as
the nature of cause-effect reasoning that does not change from one field to another.
2-3 If something in argumentation is field invariant, this means it’s a concept in a
particular field, such as the critical standards for reviewing movies, and will change from
field to field.
2-4 Presumption identifies which side in a controversy presently occupies the contested
ground.
2-5 Artificial presumption is established through law or government practice.
2-6 Natural presumption is established by observing the order of nature or common
practice.
2-7 Presumption is always determined by the laws which govern society.
2-8 It is necessary to determine who has presumption in argumentation in order to
determine who has the burden of proving a change is necessary.
2-9 The beliefs of an audience should never be used to determine presumption.
2-10 The advocate always has presumption at the beginning of argumentation.
2-11 To determine who has the burden of proof, you first have to determine who
occupies the contested ground.
2-12 The burden of proof always falls upon the arguer who has the benefit of
presumption.
2-13 Presumption describes what exists; it does not pass judgment on what exists.
2-14 The burden of proof always falls upon the party who asks for a change in existing
belief or behavior.
2-15 In fulfilling the burden of proof, the advocate judges or evaluates present beliefs
and/or behaviors.
2-16 The concept of inherency identifies the broad general topic to be argued.
2-17 For a prima facie argument to exist, the advocate must demonstrate the inability of
a belief or behavior to self-correct.
2-18 The concept of inherency suggests that the reason for change is the consequence of
some shortcoming in existing beliefs or behaviors.
2-19 The concept of inherency identifies the contested ground over which argumentation
takes place.
2-20 A stock issue is a standard question or set of questions that may be applied to a
proposition to determine what will be argued.
Multiple Choice
2-1 Argumentation can be characterized as being
(a) a social activity.
(b) an intellectual activity.
(c) a verbal activity.
(d) All of the above
2-2 Argumentation can be characterized as involving
(a) opinion stating.
(b) opinion justifying.
(c) opinion refuting.
(d) All of the above
2-3 Argumentation can be characterized as being
(a) directed toward an audience.
(b) political in nature.
(c) self-reflexive.
(d) All of the above
2-4 A field of argument
(a) is a social or professional context in which people argue
(b) is the basic unit of argument
(c) establishes the tests we apply to determine the quality of information used to
prove arguments
(d) is static and unchanging once established.
2-5 The person who communicates to encourage a change in belief or behavior is
referred to as the
(a) advocate.
(b) opponent.
(c) spokesperson.
2-6 The person who acts to discourage a change in belief or behavior is referred to as the
(a) advocate.
(b) opponent.
(c) spokesperson.
2-7 In the proposition, “Changing the semester structure to a ten-week semester with a
six-day academic week would achieve substantial savings for NMU,” artificial
presumption would:
(a) require the opponent to begin argumentation because this is a substantial change.
(b) suggest that we presently believe a semester structure with a six-day academic
week will not necessarily achieve substantial savings over the present structure.
(c) suggest that we presently believe that reducing the semester from 15 to 10 weeks
will achieve substantial savings.
2-8 In the proposition, “A nuclear waste dump would benefit the local economy,”
artificial presumption would
(a) require the advocate to provide reasons why the local economy needs
“benefiting.”
(b) require the opponent to begin argumentation.
(c) suggest that we presently believe the local area does not need a nuclear dump to
benefit its economy.
(d) suggest that we presently believe the local area does need a nuclear dump to
benefit its economy.
2-9 When using natural presumption as a tool for audience analysis, it is advisable to ask
such questions as
(a) to what groups do members of the audience belong.
(b) to what sources of information do audience members accord deference.
(c) what is the popular or unpopular opinion on a particular subject.
2-10 When using natural presumption as a tool for audience analysis, it is advisable to
ask such questions as what information on a subject might
(a) hold the advantage of novelty.
(b) be easily found on the Internet.
(c) reflect artificial presumption.
2-11 When we use argumentation to test a hypothesis, presumption is
(a) artificial.
(b) natural.
(c) not employed.
2-12 The benefit of presumption is granted to
(a) the advocate.
(b) the opponent.
(c) the proposition for argumentation.
2-13 Which of the following is NOT a description of presumption?
(a) It identifies the shortcomings in existing beliefs and behaviors.
(b) It identifies sources of information which provide good reasons for changing
belief or behavior.
(c) It describes existing beliefs, policies, practices, or institutions.
(d) It is a decision rule that determines what the advocate must prove in testing the
propositions as a hypothesis.
2-14 The _________ is the obligation of the advocate to contest the figurative ground of
argument by offering arguments which are logically sufficient to challenge presumption.
(a) burden of proof
(b) burden of rebuttal
(c) burden of refutation
2-15 The burden of proof is the logical opposite of
(a) presumption.
(b) inherency.
(c) topicality.
2-16 The term prima facie argument refers to the responsibility of the:
(a) opponent to present arguments which are sufficient to convince a reasonable
person that the proposition is valid.
(b) advocate to present arguments which are sufficient to convince a reasonable
person that the proposition is valid.
(c) opponent to present arguments which are sufficient to convince a reasonable
person that the proposition is invalid.
(d) advocate to present arguments which are sufficient to convince a reasonable
2-17 Staying within the subject area of the proposition is the advocate’s responsibility for
doing what?
(a) Assuming the burden of proof.
(b) Developing a topical prima facie case.
(c) Arguing inherency.
(d) All
2-18 When someone has presented a prima facie case, it is the same as saying that they
have assumed the burden of
(a) rebuttal.
(b) presumption.
(c) refutation.
2-19 Inherency is the term used to describe the concept that
(a) the reason for change is a consequence of some shortcoming in existing beliefs or
behaviors.
(b) existing beliefs or behaviors will self-correct if given enough time.
(c) change is the natural course in human events.
(d) existing problems can be identified by examining human beings as dwelling
simultaneously in the state of being and the process of becoming.
2-20 Why is inherency crucial to constructing a prima facie case?
(a) Advocates must identify the cause(s) of a problem or a need for knowledge.
(b) Advocates must determine whether inherency is “structural” or “attitudinal”
because attitudinal inherency can be more difficult to overcome.
(c) We take it as a given that if the cause of a problem cannot be found, we cannot
determine how to solve it; if there is nothing to stimulate a quest for knowledge, we
are unlikely to search for it.
(d) We generally recognize that because the advocate seeks change, she has a more
difficult task because she is required to use cause-effect reasoning.