978-0133804058 Chapter 08

50

CHAPTER 8 – SETTING UP A MORAL SYSTEM: BASIC ASSUMPTIONS AND

BASIC PRINCIPLES

General Overview

In this chapter the author tries to deal with a number of issues that up to this point have been left

unresolved. These include consequentialism and nonconsequentialism, self and other, act and

rule, reason and emotion, absolute and relative, universal and particular. These are some of the

most basic poles of ethics and the lack of closure will no doubt have left some of the students

frustrated and disappointed. To address this, the author proposes to state and justify five basic

principles that form the basis for an ethical system that the author calls humanitarian ethics.

Class Suggestions

That students can and should attempt independently to develop their own ethical system is the

real objective behind this chapter. Getting students to think about whether they would accept all

of the principles argued for here, which ones they might remove or add and how they might all

fit together, can be a very interesting learning experience for them. One possibility is to get

students to do a review of the coursework so far and think about the principles they might derive

from this work. This would entail looking over the chapters on consequentialism,

nonconsequentialism, etc., with a view to taking the best ideas from each theory and then

figuring out whether one might construct principles that cut across and cohere with these ideas.

One can then experiment with these principles in particular contexts or applied moral topics as

the author does here in the second part of the book. Alternatively, get students to come up with a

set of principles that they can agree to as a group (of say five) and then give them an issue to

work on where they apply and test the principles they’ve chosen. In the book the issues are

“living together without marriage” and “rape,” but any issue will do. In any case, getting students

to think hard about how they might construct their own ethics through reflection on basic

principles is valuable in itself.

Rallying points: This is also a useful point for instructors to pause, take stock, find out what

material you may need to go over again and to point to where you’re going, i.e., that the course

will now look at more “applied” issues and cases, etc. Giving students a clear sense of the course

as a unified whole with a beginning, middle and end really helps them to order, classify and

structure the things you’re asking them to think about and learn. Although learning in philosophy

is not about “banking” or building up information the quality of learning in philosophy is aided –

and at this level – by carefully shaping and guiding their learning process toward some end: i.e.,

that they are on their way to being able to do something important and worthwhile that they

couldn’t do before.

Chapter Summary

Aim at synthesizing the various theories and frameworks to move towards a workable ethical

system.

51

Conflicting General Moral Issues

Consequentialism versus Nonconsequentialism

Basic concern for consequences in any moral system but be aware that end does not justify

means.

Self versus Other – Interestedness

Need to bring about best consequences for all including self.

Act versus Rule

Act approach allows for more freedom, rules for more stability. Try to make both work together.

Emotion versus Reason

System should be based on reason without excluding emotions.

Basic Assumptions

1. Rationally based

2. Logically consistent

3. Universalizable

4. Should be teachable

5. Have the ability to resolve conflicts

Including the Rational and Emotional Aspects

Human Nature – Rational and Emotional:

Humans are both rational and emotional. But moral appeals to emotion alone solve nothing.

Emotion:

Reason should guide the emotions but recognize the prominent role they play.

Reason:

Reason is a power and reasoning is the exercise of that power. There are formal rules for

reasoning that all can learn to support decisions we make.

52

Reasoning implies:

1. Logical argument

2. Logical consistency

3. Detachment from feelings

4. A common means to arbitrate differences

Logical Consistency with Flexibility

Consistency: Similar claim/obligation/right, etc. in like circumstance but this should not become

an absolutism divorced from complexity of reality.

Including Universality and Particularity

Universality:

Moral system must be broad based enough to include as many as possible.

Particularity:

Shouldn’t be so general as to not apply to particular situations and individuals.

Ability to be Taught and Promulgated

Moral system must be able to be taught or disseminated.

Ability to Resolve Conflicts

If a system cannot decide between interests then it is not a good theory. If a moral system is not

capable of resolving conflicts then it is not much use to people. If these are the assumptions of

our moral system, what basic principles support them?

Basic Principles, Individual Freedom, and their Justification

Can we cut across all the principles of each system to distil our own basic principles?

Choosing Principles

Number of Principles:

One or many?

Golden Rule:

1. Cannot be one’s only principle since others must want different things than we do.

53

2. Doesn’t tell us what to do; it only provides a basis for evaluating what we have chosen to do.

The Value of Life Principle (all life or just human life?)

“Human beings should revere life and accept death.” All ethical systems concern themselves

with the value of some lives.

Justification of Value of Life Principle:

Life is basic without which there can be no good or bad. Individuals have right to life and death,

unless justification can be shown otherwise. Value of life empirically proven.

The Principle of Goodness or Rightness

Always try to do good and avoid doing harm. Ethicists argue over how to achieve this but most

agree that this is a sound objective.

Justification of the Principle of Goodness:

If one accepts morality one is committed to the idea of goodness in one way or another.

Although ethicists differ some agree on the basic goods. Pluralism is the idea that there are many

(more than one) goods. Principle of goodness is logically prior.

Principles of Justice or Fairness

Human beings should treat others fairly and justly.

Justification: If goods are to be shared they should be shared justly. Each should have an equal

opportunity to acquire the goods of society. Recognize equality of human beings and yet allow

for individual difference.

Principle of Truth Telling or Honesty

Moral systems cannot function without this principle, ideas cannot be communicated or

agreements made if real doubt exists about the honesty of those involved.

Justification: This principle is necessary but perhaps the hardest to comply with. Because of this

vulnerability carefully justified exceptions are allowable but a very strong attempt must be made

to be truthful and honest in all relationships.

The Principle of Individual Freedom

Principle of autonomy means that individuals must have freedom to choose how to be moral with

the framework of the first four basic principles.

54

Justification: Each person is unique and each has different needs, abilities, talents, etc. Must

recognize and allow for this. For a moral system to work individuals need latitude to make

decisions and choices appropriate for their individual differences.

Priority of the Basic Principles

Two ways in which priority of principles may be determined:

1. General: logical and empirical.

2. Particular: actual situation or context.

A General Way of Determining Priority–Two Categories

The Primary Category:

Logical priority (goodness) and empirical priority (value of life)

Secondary Category:

Covers the other three principles. The principles of goodness and value of life are essential to

any moral system, although one may take precedence over the other. The other three principles

are interchangeable among themselves but not with the first two principles.

Particular Way of Determining Priority

The five principles must be applicable in real moral situations and these situations will determine

the priority that one gives to the principles. This is an example of a mixed deontological

approach to ethics. This system is then tested with the examples of marriage and rape.

Conclusion

The five principles together constitute what the author calls “humanitarian ethics” and allows for

diversity and variety in the context of stability and rationality.

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

Consequentialism

Nonconsequentialism

Self

Other

Reason

Emotion

Universal

Particular

Act

Rule

Reason

Consistency

Principle

Value of Life

Goodness

Justice

Honesty

Individual Freedom

Situation

Context

55

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. Pick out one unresolved problem from our list and attempt to push through to a conclusion,

clarifying as many smaller parts as you can.

2. State and defend five basic principles that would form the basis of your own ethical system,

paying attention to strengths as well as potential weaknesses.

3. Critically evaluate the author’s stated principles and their priorities. Which ones would you

replace and why?

4. Choose a moral issue and apply your own moral principles to it, dealing with inconsistencies

and/or problems that arise.

5. How does your moral framework repeat, conflict with, or depart from the moral system that

you came into class with? Explore the differences and explain what you’ve learned. You

should ask this question again at the end of the course.

TRUE/FALSE

1. One of the major problems in setting up a moral system is the conflict between self and other.

2. A basic assumption of any moral system ought to be the existence of God.

3. If morals can’t be taught then they’re not applicable.

4. The value of life principle means that abortion is wrong.

5. The principle of goodness means that what I think is good is right.

6. For the author of this text, situation or context has no bearing on prioritizing the principles.

7. One of the problems with a strict rules approach is that they do not tell us what to do in some

situations.

8. The principle of individual freedom is not limited by anything otherwise it wouldn’t be

freedom.

9. According to the author there is no place for religion in moral thinking.

10. The author’s system of ethics is called utilitarianism because it tries to help others.

MULTIPLE CHOICE

11. What, according to the author, are some of the basic conflicting moral issues that need to be

synthesized into one system?

a) pleasure and happiness

b) love and passion

c) feelings and emotions

d) consequentialism and nonconsequentialism

12. The basic assumptions or premises of a morality ought to include some reference to

a) reason.

b) animals.

c) love.

d) music.

13. A moral system needs to deal consistently with

56

a) all human beings exclusively.

b) particular human beings exclusively.

c) the universal and the particular together.

d) none of the above.

14. To be applicable morals should be capable of being

a) agreed upon by everyone.

b) agreed upon by a select few.

c) agreed upon by no one.

d) agreed upon by some and taught to others.

15. The most basic logical principle of the moral system developed here is the

a) Principle of Self-interest.

b) Principle of Goodness.

c) Principle of the Golden Rule.

d) Principle of Free Love.

16. The most basic empirical principle of the system developed here is the

a) Principle of Justice.

b) Principle of Freedom.

c) Principle of Life.

d) Principle of Honesty.

17. If you value a range of different goods you are a(n)

a) empiricist.

b) monist.

c) hedonist.

d) pluralist.

18. Because everyone is different people must have some leeway to deal with these differences

in a way that best suits them. This is the Principle of

a) Goodness.

b) Individual Freedom.

c) Self-Interest.

d) Justice.

19. The principles can be classified into __________ general categories.

a) three

b) two

c) four

d) five

20. Putting the moral principles together forms a system called

a) Utilitarian ethics.

b) Situationist ethics.

c) Retributivist ethics.

57

d) Humanitarian ethics.

Answer Key to Chapter 8 Test Questions

True or False:

Multiple Choice: