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Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
50
CHAPTER 8 – SETTING UP A MORAL SYSTEM: BASIC ASSUMPTIONS AND
BASIC PRINCIPLES
General Overview
In this chapter the author tries to deal with a number of issues that up to this point have been left
unresolved. These include consequentialism and nonconsequentialism, self and other, act and
rule, reason and emotion, absolute and relative, universal and particular. These are some of the
most basic poles of ethics and the lack of closure will no doubt have left some of the students
frustrated and disappointed. To address this, the author proposes to state and justify five basic
principles that form the basis for an ethical system that the author calls humanitarian ethics.
Class Suggestions
That students can and should attempt independently to develop their own ethical system is the
real objective behind this chapter. Getting students to think about whether they would accept all
of the principles argued for here, which ones they might remove or add and how they might all
fit together, can be a very interesting learning experience for them. One possibility is to get
students to do a review of the coursework so far and think about the principles they might derive
from this work. This would entail looking over the chapters on consequentialism,
nonconsequentialism, etc., with a view to taking the best ideas from each theory and then
figuring out whether one might construct principles that cut across and cohere with these ideas.
One can then experiment with these principles in particular contexts or applied moral topics as
the author does here in the second part of the book. Alternatively, get students to come up with a
set of principles that they can agree to as a group (of say five) and then give them an issue to
work on where they apply and test the principles they’ve chosen. In the book the issues are
“living together without marriage” and “rape,” but any issue will do. In any case, getting students
to think hard about how they might construct their own ethics through reflection on basic
principles is valuable in itself.
Rallying points: This is also a useful point for instructors to pause, take stock, find out what
material you may need to go over again and to point to where you’re going, i.e., that the course
will now look at more “applied” issues and cases, etc. Giving students a clear sense of the course
as a unified whole with a beginning, middle and end really helps them to order, classify and
structure the things you’re asking them to think about and learn. Although learning in philosophy
is not about “banking” or building up information the quality of learning in philosophy is aided –
and at this level – by carefully shaping and guiding their learning process toward some end: i.e.,
that they are on their way to being able to do something important and worthwhile that they
couldn’t do before.
Chapter Summary
Aim at synthesizing the various theories and frameworks to move towards a workable ethical
system.
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
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Conflicting General Moral Issues
Consequentialism versus Nonconsequentialism
Basic concern for consequences in any moral system but be aware that end does not justify
means.
Self versus Other – Interestedness
Need to bring about best consequences for all including self.
Act versus Rule
Act approach allows for more freedom, rules for more stability. Try to make both work together.
Emotion versus Reason
System should be based on reason without excluding emotions.
Basic Assumptions
1. Rationally based
2. Logically consistent
3. Universalizable
4. Should be teachable
5. Have the ability to resolve conflicts
Including the Rational and Emotional Aspects
Human Nature – Rational and Emotional:
Humans are both rational and emotional. But moral appeals to emotion alone solve nothing.
Emotion:
Reason should guide the emotions but recognize the prominent role they play.
Reason:
Reason is a power and reasoning is the exercise of that power. There are formal rules for
reasoning that all can learn to support decisions we make.
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
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Reasoning implies:
1. Logical argument
2. Logical consistency
3. Detachment from feelings
4. A common means to arbitrate differences
Logical Consistency with Flexibility
Consistency: Similar claim/obligation/right, etc. in like circumstance but this should not become
an absolutism divorced from complexity of reality.
Including Universality and Particularity
Universality:
Moral system must be broad based enough to include as many as possible.
Particularity:
Shouldn’t be so general as to not apply to particular situations and individuals.
Ability to be Taught and Promulgated
Moral system must be able to be taught or disseminated.
Ability to Resolve Conflicts
If a system cannot decide between interests then it is not a good theory. If a moral system is not
capable of resolving conflicts then it is not much use to people. If these are the assumptions of
our moral system, what basic principles support them?
Basic Principles, Individual Freedom, and their Justification
Can we cut across all the principles of each system to distil our own basic principles?
Choosing Principles
Number of Principles:
One or many?
Golden Rule:
1. Cannot be one’s only principle since others must want different things than we do.
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
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2. Doesn’t tell us what to do; it only provides a basis for evaluating what we have chosen to do.
The Value of Life Principle (all life or just human life?)
“Human beings should revere life and accept death.” All ethical systems concern themselves
with the value of some lives.
Justification of Value of Life Principle:
Life is basic without which there can be no good or bad. Individuals have right to life and death,
unless justification can be shown otherwise. Value of life empirically proven.
The Principle of Goodness or Rightness
Always try to do good and avoid doing harm. Ethicists argue over how to achieve this but most
agree that this is a sound objective.
Justification of the Principle of Goodness:
If one accepts morality one is committed to the idea of goodness in one way or another.
Although ethicists differ some agree on the basic goods. Pluralism is the idea that there are many
(more than one) goods. Principle of goodness is logically prior.
Principles of Justice or Fairness
Human beings should treat others fairly and justly.
Justification: If goods are to be shared they should be shared justly. Each should have an equal
opportunity to acquire the goods of society. Recognize equality of human beings and yet allow
for individual difference.
Principle of Truth Telling or Honesty
Moral systems cannot function without this principle, ideas cannot be communicated or
agreements made if real doubt exists about the honesty of those involved.
Justification: This principle is necessary but perhaps the hardest to comply with. Because of this
vulnerability carefully justified exceptions are allowable but a very strong attempt must be made
to be truthful and honest in all relationships.
The Principle of Individual Freedom
Principle of autonomy means that individuals must have freedom to choose how to be moral with
the framework of the first four basic principles.
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
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Justification: Each person is unique and each has different needs, abilities, talents, etc. Must
recognize and allow for this. For a moral system to work individuals need latitude to make
decisions and choices appropriate for their individual differences.
Priority of the Basic Principles
Two ways in which priority of principles may be determined:
1. General: logical and empirical.
2. Particular: actual situation or context.
A General Way of Determining Priority–Two Categories
The Primary Category:
Logical priority (goodness) and empirical priority (value of life)
Secondary Category:
Covers the other three principles. The principles of goodness and value of life are essential to
any moral system, although one may take precedence over the other. The other three principles
are interchangeable among themselves but not with the first two principles.
Particular Way of Determining Priority
The five principles must be applicable in real moral situations and these situations will determine
the priority that one gives to the principles. This is an example of a mixed deontological
approach to ethics. This system is then tested with the examples of marriage and rape.
Conclusion
The five principles together constitute what the author calls “humanitarian ethics” and allows for
diversity and variety in the context of stability and rationality.
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
Consequentialism
Nonconsequentialism
Self
Other
Reason
Emotion
Universal
Particular
Act
Rule
Reason
Consistency
Principle
Value of Life
Goodness
Justice
Honesty
Individual Freedom
Situation
Context
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
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ESSAY QUESTIONS
1. Pick out one unresolved problem from our list and attempt to push through to a conclusion,
clarifying as many smaller parts as you can.
2. State and defend five basic principles that would form the basis of your own ethical system,
paying attention to strengths as well as potential weaknesses.
3. Critically evaluate the author’s stated principles and their priorities. Which ones would you
replace and why?
4. Choose a moral issue and apply your own moral principles to it, dealing with inconsistencies
and/or problems that arise.
5. How does your moral framework repeat, conflict with, or depart from the moral system that
you came into class with? Explore the differences and explain what you’ve learned. You
should ask this question again at the end of the course.
TRUE/FALSE
1. One of the major problems in setting up a moral system is the conflict between self and other.
2. A basic assumption of any moral system ought to be the existence of God.
3. If morals can’t be taught then they’re not applicable.
4. The value of life principle means that abortion is wrong.
5. The principle of goodness means that what I think is good is right.
6. For the author of this text, situation or context has no bearing on prioritizing the principles.
7. One of the problems with a strict rules approach is that they do not tell us what to do in some
situations.
8. The principle of individual freedom is not limited by anything otherwise it wouldn’t be
freedom.
9. According to the author there is no place for religion in moral thinking.
10. The author’s system of ethics is called utilitarianism because it tries to help others.
MULTIPLE CHOICE
11. What, according to the author, are some of the basic conflicting moral issues that need to be
synthesized into one system?
a) pleasure and happiness
b) love and passion
c) feelings and emotions
d) consequentialism and nonconsequentialism
12. The basic assumptions or premises of a morality ought to include some reference to
a) reason.
b) animals.
c) love.
d) music.
13. A moral system needs to deal consistently with
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
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a) all human beings exclusively.
b) particular human beings exclusively.
c) the universal and the particular together.
d) none of the above.
14. To be applicable morals should be capable of being
a) agreed upon by everyone.
b) agreed upon by a select few.
c) agreed upon by no one.
d) agreed upon by some and taught to others.
15. The most basic logical principle of the moral system developed here is the
a) Principle of Self-interest.
b) Principle of Goodness.
c) Principle of the Golden Rule.
d) Principle of Free Love.
16. The most basic empirical principle of the system developed here is the
a) Principle of Justice.
b) Principle of Freedom.
c) Principle of Life.
d) Principle of Honesty.
17. If you value a range of different goods you are a(n)
a) empiricist.
b) monist.
c) hedonist.
d) pluralist.
18. Because everyone is different people must have some leeway to deal with these differences
in a way that best suits them. This is the Principle of
a) Goodness.
b) Individual Freedom.
c) Self-Interest.
d) Justice.
19. The principles can be classified into __________ general categories.
a) three
b) two
c) four
d) five
20. Putting the moral principles together forms a system called
a) Utilitarian ethics.
b) Situationist ethics.
c) Retributivist ethics.
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
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d) Humanitarian ethics.
Answer Key to Chapter 8 Test Questions
True or False:
Multiple Choice:
