978-0133804058 Chapter 06

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CHAPTER 6 – FREEDOM VERSUS DETERMINISM

General Overview

Free will and determinism go to the heart of many philosophical, sociological, psychological,

economic, and cultural theories and worldviews and are certainly central to any conception of

morality. Free will appears to separate us from nature, and yet much recent science tells us that

this is not so. The concept of causality is central here and instructors will need to carefully

address the perplexities and confusions that surround this notion. Also, the author clearly opts for

a particular view so, as with the last chapter, you will need to make decisions – assuming that

such a thing exists or that they haven’t been made already – about whether to run with the author

or not.

Class Suggestions

This topic can and should be tightly structured and laid out to prevent misunderstandings,

especially when discussing the differences between compatibilism and the other positions. I

usually begin by asking students whether they chose to come to class today. Almost everyone

will agree that they have chosen. You can then begin to sketch out the idea of determinism,

getting the key concepts up on the board and explaining how determinism is different from fate,

destiny, chance, etc. Using simple examples will draw students into the discussions and you can

build in complexity as you go along. Of course the issue of moral responsibility should be

stressed here, and asking students what they could and would do if they really believed that

everything was determined usually brings this home. Another way of setting up the problem is to

ask students whether everything has a cause. If everything has a cause then how can we be held

responsible? If, on the other hand, some things are uncaused, then how can we be held

responsible for something we didn’t cause? Either way appears to remove us from moral

responsibility. Getting them in groups to figure this out can be very productive.

Chapter Summary

Are human beings “free” to make moral decisions or are they “determined” by forces outside of

them?

The Meaning of Determinism

Determinism means universal causation. For everything that occurs there is a corresponding

cause. If this is true, how could we hold people responsible for what they cannot help doing?

Types and Theories of Determinism

Religious Determinism–Predestination

Religious determinism derives from attributes of God or Allah: an all knowing, all-powerful

being. God determines the course of events. This raises – apart from huge issues of proof – the

problem of evil and the problem of salvation.

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Scientific Determinism

Science is founded on universal causation and such causation means that there is no freedom.

Physical Science and Physical Determinism:

Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) is the greatest exponent of physical determinism. The universe is

governed by mechanical laws. Human beings are parts of that universe. Some argue that humans

are not just physical and question physics that suggests a “freedom” even at the most basic non-

conscious level of the universe (atoms, molecules).

Biological and Genetic Determinism:

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) argued that species evolve through “selection” of the “fittest.”

Modern genetics complements this theory.

Both physical and biological determinism leave no room for a “mental” or “spiritual” side to our

existence.

Social-Cultural Determinism

Historical, or Cultural, Determinism:

Hegel (1770-1831) believed that world history is a manifestation of an “absolute mind” realizing

itself. Character and action are determined by culture.

Problems:

1. Difficult to prove

2. Culture may influence but may not fully determine actions

Economic or Social Determinism:

Karl Marx (1818-1883) followed Hegel but argued that history is determined economically and

socially. People are determined by class.

Psychological Determinism– Freudianism and Behaviorism:

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) argued that human beings are determined by unconscious drives

that cultures distort or repress.

Psychological determinism significantly argues from observed behavior rather than inner

psychical dynamics. B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) argued that human behavior is governed by

conditioning and environment, both physical and social.

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Problems: Conditioning may work for some under certain circumstances but not all of the time.

Skinner’s premise is a totally malleable material that can be shaped with the appropriate

techniques.

Fatalism and Hard and Soft Determinism

Fatalism

All events are fixed and beyond our control. This is not the same as saying everything has a

cause.

Hard Determinism (HD)

Everything is caused so no free will. Humans can change the future but this will be as a result of

their own personal make-up or environment, not a free choice.

Soft Determinism

Everything is caused but some events are caused by humans by means of their own minds or

wills. Thus, one is neither completely free or determined. Freedom is strictly limited because

humans originate only some causes but are determined by others.

Indeterminism

There is freedom and chance in the world especially when we look at human deliberation and

chose especially moral deliberation. William James (1842-1910) is the most prominent exponent

of this view. But if acts are “uncaused” or indeterminate then nobody could be said to be

responsible for them. Thus there may be accidents or chance but not true human freedom.

Criticism of Hard Determinism and Arguments for Freedom

For hard determinists morality is an illusion. Hospers argues that we can free ourselves of certain

desires (alcoholism, smoking, etc.).

Inaccurate Use of Language

Hospers argues that hard determinists have pushed the meaning of “freedom” to mean

completely free in an unlimited sense, i.e., free of biological or genetic make-up, etc. This is

ultimately self-contradictory.

Human Complexity

HD ignores the complexity of human beings and reduces, for example, consciousness to physical

phenomenon.

Levels of Differences

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Rocks, Plants, Animals, and Humans:

Freedom or choice seems to increase the further up the evolutionary scale you go.

Existentialism and Human Consciousness:

Jean Paul Sartre (1905-1980) argued that humans are confronted by freedom in that

consciousness “intends” and creates experience. We make “choices” in relation situations that

may be determined. For example, how we choose to live in relation to those things that may be

determined for us.

Conclusion: Soft Determinism

Soft determinism appears as the best alternative. Freedom is limited by external factors of all

sorts. But we are free to choose or not choose how we respond to them, to act or not to act in

relation to them. Thus it makes sense to assign moral responsibility to human beings, to praise,

blame, and reward them.

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

Compatibilism

Incompatibilism

Free Will

Determinism

Religious Predestination

Physical/Biological/Genetic Causality

Historical/Economic/Psychological Causality

Hard Determinism

Soft Determinism

Indeterminism

Fatalism

Responsibility

Chance

Accident

Destiny

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. Did you use free will in answering this question? Critically examine the arguments for and

against.

2. Does everything have a cause? In your answer deal thoroughly with the question of moral

responsibility.

3. If God is all knowing there cannot be free will. Discuss.

4. Compatibilism or soft determinism is the view that free will and determinism are compatible.

Analyze the strengths and weaknesses of this view.

5. Which position is the best here and on what grounds?

TRUE/FALSE

1. Determinism can be understood to mean that there is no uncaused event.

2. Religious determinism is the idea that our lives are predestined.

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3. Ivan Pavlov is famous for his experiments with human beings, getting them to salivate at the

sound of a bell.

4. B. F. Skinner based his behavioral theories on the groundbreaking work of Heisenberg.

5. Fatalism is the view that although things are fixed and predetermined your behavior still

makes a difference.

6. Indeterminism is the idea that some events, especially regarding human decision making, are

uncaused. If some human decisions are uncaused then nobody is responsible for them.

7. Hard determinism maintains that if all events are caused there is no freedom.

8. Soft determinism is the view that all events are caused but there is human freedom.

9. According to the author of the text, one problem with hard determinists is their inaccurate use

of language.

10. Soft determinism is the only acceptable theory because it shows that freedom is impossible.

MULTIPLE CHOICE

11. Determinism means the same thing as

a) fatalism.

b) destiny.

c) universal causation.

d) chance.

12. The great exponent of physical determinism was

a) John Calvin.

b) Sir Isaac Newton.

c) Charles Darwin.

d) George Hegel.

13. The great exponent of economic and social determinism was

a) Adam Smith.

b) Karl Marx.

c) John Hospers.

d) William James.

14. If there are external causes for everything you do you are a

a) hard determinist.

b) soft determinist.

c) indeterminist.

d) fatalist.

15. Who argued that humans are physical beings conditioned by their social, cultural, and natural

environments?

a) Karl Marx

b) Sigmund Freud

c) B.F. Skinner

d) Henri Bergson

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16. All events are caused but some are caused by human beings is the doctrine of

a) hard determinism.

b) soft determinism.

c) soft indeterminism.

d) hard indeterminism.

17. Who, according to the author of the text, is the most prominent exponent of indeterminism?

a) William James

b) Henry Ford

c) Sigmund Freud

d) Karl Marx

18. Indeterminism is the belief that

a) some things are caused.

b) all things are caused.

c) nothing is caused.

d) nothing is caused except human actions.

19. Who said that consciousness is “intentional”?

a) Sigmund Freud

b) Ivan Pavlov

c) Fred Flintstone

d) Edmund Husserl

20. Who would argue that even if you are crippled or blind how you choose to respond to that is

freedom?

a) B.F. Skinner

b) Jean-Paul Sartre

c) Paul Churchland

d) Isaac Newton

Answer Key to Chapter 6 Test Questions

True or False: Multiple Choice: