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Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
15
CHAPTER 3 – NONCONSEQUENTIALIST (DEONTOLOGICAL) THEORIES OF
MORALITY
General Overview
The objectives of this chapter are to describe and analyze nonconsequentialist theories of ethics
as well as virtue ethics. This includes distinguishing act and rule versions of
nonconsequentialism such as Intuitionism, Divine Command Theory, Kant’s Duty Ethics, and
Ross’ Prima Facie Duties.
Class Suggestions
Students will probably be confused by the diverse range of perspectives in this chapter so
structuring the material very carefully is essential. I recommend drawing a table on the board to
indicate the similarities and differences among these theories. Kant and Ross can be profitably
treated together although Ross should also of course be placed under intuitionism.
There are a range of activities that an instructor might use to help students learn and engage with
this material in this chapter. Getting students to practice universalizing actions in relation to
situations or examples – especially topics in the news – really helps them to see both the
strengths and weaknesses of Kant’s and Ross’ ethics. I recommend group work at this stage that
enables students to work with non-consequentialist and consequentialist approaches in order both
to consolidate previous work on consequentialism and to develop critical comparisons. One
exercise that can be helpful is to evaluate the following situation. Imagine a pharmacist who has
ill motives in his heart and intentionally fills a prescription with what he thinks is poison only to
have the target of his murderous attempt to be completely healed. The consequences of his mis-
filling of the prescription are clearly beneficial, yet can be evaluated as less than praiseworthy.
Alternatively, imagine a pharmacist who fills the prescription with the intention of discharging
his duties exactly and properly and further because he truly aims for the well-being of the
patient. In this case, suppose the patient dies upon taking the prescription. Here, the
consequences are clearly negative, yet would students want to call the pharmacist’s actions
blameworthy? Asking students to discuss the role of motive and intention in determining the
praiseworthiness or blameworthiness of an action can be quite profitable here.
Chapter Summary
Nonconsequentialist theories claim that consequences should not enter into our moral judgments.
Actions are to be judged right or good in accordance with other criteria (intuitions, divine
command, etc.).
Act Nonconsequentialist Theories (anc)
Only individual acts and situations count morally. Cannot generalize from rules or principles
since every situation is different. Appeal to “intuition” and “emotions” to arrive at moral
conclusions.
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
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Intuitionism
In support:
1. Immediate sense of right and wrong.
2. Humans had moral ideas before the existence of philosophers. These ideas were intuitions.
3. Reasoning in morals is only used to confirm our intuitions.
4. Reasoning on its own too often goes awry. Fall back on what “feels right.”
Arguments against:
1. Intuitions are wild guesses.
2. No proof that we have innate moral sense.
3. Intuitions can’t be critiqued.
4. Absence of intuitions in some suggests either lack of morals or morals based on other
grounds.
Criticisms of Act Nonconsequentialism
1. If we all have different intuitions then there is no way to resolve conflicts.
2. How do we know that our intuitions are good moral guides?
3. How can we know when we have sufficient evidence to support our intuitions?
4. How can our intuitions be good for all?
5. How do we justify our intuitions?
6. Are our momentary intuitions all we have to make moral decisions?
More generally:
1. Are all acts completely unalike?
2. Is one individual’s intuition sufficient?
Rule Nonconsequentialist Theories (rnc)
Rnc’s believe that there are or can be rules to guide our moral judgments independently of their
consequences. How these theories differ is in terms of how they establish the rules to be
followed.
Divine Command
Must follow the commands (rules) of an all good being.
Criticisms:
1. Lack of rational foundation.
2. Even if we could show that the rules were morally valid we could not justify them in a
satisfactory way.
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
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3. How do we interpret the rules correctly? Wide divergence of interpretation amongst religious
believers.
Kant’s Duty Ethics
Another prominent rnc is Immanuel Kant (1724-1804).
The Good Will:
Only the good will acts in accordance with rules regardless of consequences.
Morality by Reasoning Alone:
Moral rules for Kant are established by reasoning alone, not God, according to:
1. Logical consistency
2. Universalizability
Kant thought that one could deduce moral absolutes, in accordance with the above, through the
Categorical Imperative.
The Categorical Imperative (CI):
An act is immoral if the maxim (rule to follow) cannot be universalized.
Kant thought that the CI only authorized absolute rules with no exceptions.
The Practical Imperative:
Another version of CI says that one must never treat another as a means to an end. Individuals
are “ends in themselves.”
Duty rather than Inclination:
One should obey absolute rules out of a sense of duty not inclination. Someone who is only
inclined to be generous –rather than generous out of duty- is not fully moral.
Summary and Illustration:
Absolute moral rules are established with certainty by reason and one should obey these rules out
of a sense of duty. All persons are ends in themselves. Illustrate this with Kant’s example of a
suicide.
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
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Criticisms of Kant’s Duty Ethics
1. Conflicting duties – how to choose?
2. Many questionable values can be universalized without contradiction or inconsistency.
3. Reversibility criterion (in relation to 2 above, Kant would “reverse” the question and ask
would you want it done to you?) may be implicitly consequentialist. I.e. would you want
someone to help you in need because the consequences are better than someone not helping
you when you need help?
4. Qualifying a rule versus making exceptions to it. One may object to exceptions to the rule but
qualifying the rule may still be consistent with CI.
5. Duties versus inclinations. If duties and inclinations coincide, what is the difference morally?
Ross’s Prima Facie Duties
Sir William David Ross (1877-1940) agreed with Kant’s rnc but not with the absolutism that
Kant derived from it.
Prima Facie Duties:
Prima facie duties literally are duties “at first glance.” They are those duties all human beings
must obey unless other considerations enter the picture. Such considerations may outweigh our
otherwise prima facie duties. With this Ross thought Kant’s absolutism and thereby conflicting
duties could be avoided.
Criticisms
1. Intuitionist: what criteria determine prima facie duties?
2. When is one duty “stronger” than another?
General Criticisms of Nonconsequentialist Theories
1. Why follow rules if consequences are bad?
2. If rules are absolute how do we avoid conflict?
3. Can a rule be exceptionless?
4. Is it possible to avoid consideration of consequences in all moral judgments?
Conclusion
Nonconsequentialist theories of morality have advantages and disadvantages overall:
Advantages:
1. Do not have to compute consequences.
2. Provide strong guidance in rules.
3. Ground systems on something other than consequences and avoid cost-benefit analysis.
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
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Disadvantages:
1. Ignores consequences of acts or rules.
2. Divided over which rules are best to follow and why.
3. Unclear how to resolve conflict between rules.
4. Seems to close down moral discussion.
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
Rules
Intuitions
Emotions
Divine Command
Duty
Inclination
Good Will
Categorical Imperative
Consistency
Universalizability
Prima Facie Duties
ESSAY QUESTIONS
1. Are you an act nonconsequentialist? Explain why or why not.
2. Analyze one of the rule nonconsequentialist theories. Do the strengths outweigh the
weaknesses?
3. Describe the differences between act and rule nonconsequentialism.
4. Compare consequentialist and nonconsequentialist approaches to morality. Which do you
think is best overall and why?
TRUE/FALSE
1. Nonconsequentialist theories of morality are based on a range of factors including the ends of
our actions.
2. Intuitionists believe that each of us has an immediate sense of right and wrong.
3. Rule nonconsequentialism is the belief that only the rules of God are moral.
4. The great Immanuel Kant thought that our inclinations were the best guide for morals.
5. The categorical imperative for Kant demands that you must follow absolute rules.
6. “Prima facie” duties are those duties that have no real obligation on us.
7. Divine Command Theory is the view that self-interest, consequences, and motives are lower
forms of ethical decision-making and therefore insufficient for ethical theory.
8. For a Divine Command Theorist, the demands of a higher authority can be mitigated by
human self-interest, concern for consequences, or human motivations.
9. On Kant’s view, the ends can justify the means.
10. One of the most significant difficulties with prima facie duties is that it is difficult to establish
which of them has priority over the others when there is conflict between two or more of them.
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
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MULTIPLE CHOICE
11. Who believes that reasoning in moral matters is usually used to confirm our more direct
sense of right and wrong?
a) Deontologists
b) Care theorists
c) Intuitionists
d) Psychologists
12. “If it feels good do it” is a popular slogan associated with which moral theory?
a) Rule nonconsequentialism
b) Transcendentalism
c) Act nonconsequentialism
d) Egoism
13. Who said that if you can’t universalize your action then it is not moral?
a) Socrates
b) Jesus
c) Joseph Fletcher
d) Kant
14. Who said that making a promise was self evidently to create a moral claim on us?
a) Immanuel Kant
b) W. D. Ross
c) Carol Gilligan
d) Martha Stewart
15. A weakness of nonconsequentialists is that they try to avoid
a) the consequences of their rules or acts.
b) the duties that all human beings have.
c) the virtues in leading the good life.
d) paying taxes like the rest of us.
16. Which of the following is an example of non-consequentialist ethical theories?
a) Intuitionism
b) Divine Command
c) Deontological Ethics
d) Prima Facie Ethics
e) All of the above
17. Which is a complaint often made against intuitionism?
a) There is an immediate sense of right and wrong.
b) Intuitions, or moral ideas, preceded professional philosophy.
c) There is no proof that we have an innate moral sense.
d) Reasoning in morals is only a matter of confirming our intuitions.
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
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18. What is a presumed strength of Divine Command Theory?
a) There is a standard above human reasoning.
b) There is no rational foundation.
c) Even if the rules are morally valid, there is no justification procedure for them.
d) There is far too much divergence among religious people to make a determination of the
rules with any confidence.
19. According to Kant, the only thing that is good without qualification is
a) good results.
b) good rules upon which to act.
c) good will.
d) good consequences.
20. Which of the following is a strength of nonconsequentialist approaches?
a) Rules are grounded in something other than consequences and/or cost-benefit analysis.
b) Ignores consequences.
c) There is division over which rules have precedence over others.
d) Apparently shuts down moral discussion.
Answer Key to Chapter 3 Test Questions
True or False:
Multiple Choice :
