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Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
8
CHAPTER 2 – CONSEQUENTIALIST (TELEOLOGICAL) THEORIES OF
MORALITY
General Overview
The objective of this chapter is to introduce students to one of the broadest and most important
group of theories in philosophical morality. Consequentialist theories raise challenging questions
about the role, use, and function of consequences in moral reasoning and in living the moral life.
Should we only consider the consequences of our actions? Should we consider consequences
only for ourselves? Should we consider consequences for others? Which others? Should we
consider short-term consequences or long term, etc. This range of questions can be extended, and
this is perhaps best done in the context of the specific moral problems that are dealt with later in
the course.
Class Suggestions
It will be useful for instructors to draw on the board a representation of a “moral decision” or
judgment or such like that depicts: motive Æ action Æ consequences
This immediately helps students visualize and concretize what can be a difficult abstraction for
some of them. With this in their notes you can use it to set off contrasts with the
nonconsequentialist theories that you will deal with in more detail in the next chapter. After
highlighting consequences as the central part of moral decision making you might begin to
introduce some of the key terms like “egoist” and “utilitarian” sketching out how they differ in
the way they think about the “other,” consequences for whom, etc.
There are many different ways that students can engage this material through activities that will
help them to see strengths and weaknesses. I know instructors who “role play” with “imagine
you are the captain of a submarine on a difficult mission….” etc. My favorite is to place students
on a “health committee” with limited resources making decisions on utilitarian lines about which
patients to treat. If carefully thought out these kinds of activities really can be used to bring out
pros and cons that students might not ordinarily see. The material on “care” at the end of the
chapter could be easily developed into classroom discussion. Most students are very interested in
differences between men and women, and introducing questions early in the course about
whether ethics is in some sense “male,” or marginalizes “female” perspectives, could be useful
later on.
The philosophical material in this chapter is rich and lends itself to a wide range of activities,
seminars, group work, etc., limited only by how imaginative you can be.
Chapter Summary
Ethics divides into two major views:
1. Consequentialism – Concerned with consequences
2. Non-Consequentialism – Not concerned with consequences
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
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Consequentialism also divides into two major views:
1. Ethical egoism – Act out of self interest
2. Utilitarianism – Act for interest of all
Psychological Egoism (Pe)
Pe is not to be confused with Ethical egoism (Ee).
Pe is a scientific, descriptive theory.
Ee is a normative theory.
Pe has both a strong version (sPe) and a weak version (wPe).
Strong version: Always act out of self –interest.
Weak version: Often, but not always, act out of self-interest.
Problems with Strong and Weak Psychological Egoism
1. Some use sPe as a basis for Ee. Redundancy: why tell people to do what they cannot help
doing?
2. Some use wPe as a basis for Ee: Is /ought fallacy: The way I often may act has little to do
with how I should act.
Ethical Egoism (Ee)
Ee has three main forms:
1. Individual ethical egoism (iEe): Everyone ought to act in my self-interest.
2. Personal ethical egoism (pEe): I ought to act in my own self-interest.
3. Universal ethical egoism (uEe): Everyone should act in their own self-interest.
Problems with Individual and Personal Ethical Egoism
1. Lack of general applicability.
2. Egoists may need to conceal their egoism out of self–interest.
3. Is egoism consistent?
4. Egoists do not consider how their actions may affect others.
Universal Ethical Egoism (uEe)
Most common version of egoist theory: Everyone should act in their own self-interest.
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
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Problems with uEe
1. Inconsistency.
2. What is meant by everyone?
3. Difficulty in giving moral advice.
4. Blurring the moral and nonmoral use of “ought” and “should.”
5. Inconsistent with helping professions.
Advantages of uEe
1. Easier to determine self-interest.
2. Encourages individual freedom and responsibility.
UEe overall: Works plausibly when individuals are isolated. Conflicts arise when interests
overlap. Communities are now increasingly interconnected socially, politically, economically,
etc., so egoism is less plausible.
Ayn Rand’s Rational Ethical Egoism
Ayn Rand (1905-1982) is the most prominent modern universal ethical egoist. Rand argued that
conflicts wouldn’t arise between individuals if they were “rational.” But conflicts do arise
amongst rational individuals.
Conclusion: Ee can only work if you advocate some other theory and don’t tell anyone.
Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism derives from “utility” or usefulness. Morality is or ought to be useful. Most
prominent philosophers of utilitarianism were Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart
Mill (1806-1873).
Two kinds of utilitarianism:
1. Act utilitarianism: Everyone should perform that act that will bring about the greatest good
for everyone.
2. Rule utilitarianism: Everyone should follow that rule that will bring about the greatest good
for everyone.
Act Utilitarianism (AU)
Perform that act that will bring about the most good for everyone affected by that act. AUs
believe that each situation is different. Each individual must try to bring about the greatest
amount of good consequences for all involved in this situation at this time.
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
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Criticisms of AU
1. Difficulty of determining consequences for others.
2. Impracticality of beginning anew: Are all acts and situations completely different?
3. Difficulty of educating young or uninitiated if there are no rules or guidelines.
Rule Utilitarianism (RU)
RU emerges out of criticisms of AU. Rather than acts RU believes that everyone should establish
and follow that rule that will bring about the greatest good for all concerned. Human motives,
beliefs, actions, and situations are sufficiently similar to justify setting up rules to generate the
greatest good.
Criticisms of RU
1. Difficulty of determining consequences for others.
2. Are there any rules that are exceptionless?
Cost-Benefit Analysis, or End-Justifies-the-Means, approach – A Problem for Utilitarianism
1. Is the utility criterion understood as the “greatest good for the greatest number” always the
right thing to strive for?
2. Are individuals “ends in themselves” such that the “cost-benefit” type of analysis treats
individuals merely as means?
Conclusion: Although utilitarianism, unlike egoism, tries to consider others it runs into difficulty
determining what would be good for others. In AU there are no rules as such. In RU, which rules
cover all situations? Does the end always justify the means?
Difficulty with Consequentialist Theories in General
Can we discover all the consequences of our decisions in the present? This is especially difficult
for utilitarians because they are concerned with the effects of their decisions on others.
Care Ethics
Primarily consequentialist. Most prominent exponent is Carol Gilligan (1936-).
Men and Women are Different When it Comes to Ethical Decision Making
Men and women think differently but unequally when it comes to morality (Kohlberg). For
Kohlberg, women’s moral reasoning is inferior. For Gilligan, women’s moral reasoning is
different but equal. Different answers to moral dilemmas explained not by inferior moral
development by women but by tendency for men to focus on “justice” and women on “care.” For
Gilligan we need both justice and care.
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
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Criticisms of Gilligan
Is it a woman’s “nature” to be caring? This could be divisive socially, politically, etc.
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
Consequences
Psychological egoism
Selfishness
Ethical Egoism (individual personal universal)
Rational ethical egoism
Others
Utilitarianism
Usefulness
Greatest good
Happiness
Acts
Rules
Costs
Benefits
Means
Ends
Care
Justice
ESSAY QUESTIONS
1. What is egoism? Explain the differences between the various “egoisms.” Are you an egoist?
2. What is act utilitarianism? Analyze its strengths and weaknesses. Is it a good theory?
3. What is rule utilitarianism? Analyze its strengths and weaknesses. Is it a good theory?
4. What is “care ethics”? Can justice and care be integrated?
5. What are the strengths and weaknesses of consequentialism generally?
TRUE/FALSE
1. The two major views in the history of ethics are consequentialism and nonconsequentialism.
2. The distinction between psychological egoism and ethical egoism is that one is true and the
other is false.
3. Many philosophers believe that there is no connection between the way people do act and the
way they ought to act.
4. The problem with egoistic theories is that what they claim ought to be advocated cannot be
stated since to do so would undermine the major principle of egoism: self-interest.
5. Utilitarianism was developed in its modern form by the British philosophers John Stuart Mill
and Jeremy Bentham.
6. Utilitarianism is an egoistic theory.
7. All utilitarians agree “the end justifies the means.”
8. The problem with utilitarians is that they are too focused on the minority.
9. Lawrence Kohlberg believed that women and men were equal in moral reasoning.
10. Gilligan’s “Care Ethics” argues for a balance between the principles of care and justice.
MULTIPLE CHOICE
11. Consequentialists believe that the central part of moral action is
a) the self.
b) the virtues.
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
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c) the other.
d) the consequences.
12. If you are a psychological egoist you believe
a) that people should help others.
b) that people ought to help animals.
c) that people always or often do help themselves.
d) that people should or ought to help themselves.
13. Who said that the self-interests of rational human beings would never conflict?
a) Albert Einstein
b) Bertrand Russell
c) Ayn Rand
d) Edward Teller
14. All human beings should act in their own self-interest according to the
a) universal ethical egoist.
b) psychological egoist.
c) personal ethical egoist.
d) individual ethical egoist.
15. Who argued that an action is right if it helps in “bringing about a desirable or good end”?
a) The deontologists
b) The ethical egoists
c) The Mormons
d) The utilitarians
16. You are an act utilitarian if you believe that
a) an act is wrong if it is culturally unacceptable.
b) an act should be performed if it brings about the best consequences for everyone affected.
c) an act should not be performed if there is a clear conflict of interest.
d) an act should be performed if you benefit from it.
17. Rule utilitarians think that
a) everyone should act only on universal exceptionless rules.
b) everyone should act only according to the rule “the end does not justify the means.”
c) everyone should act according to the rule that brings about the most good for all.
d) everyone should act according to the rule that is in their self-interest.
18. One of the main difficulties of consequentialist theories is that
a) they are based solely on our duties at the time.
b) it is very difficult to discover and determine all possible consequences.
c) they emphasize the person or character at the expense of action.
d) they are based exclusively on our selfish interests.
19. Carol Gilligan suggests that a basis for morality must include
a) care.
b) consequences.
c) the moral law.
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved
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d) virtue.
20. So called “feminist ethics” involves the belief that
a) men are more mature morally.
b) women are more mature morally.
c) women think about ethics differently than men.
d) men are from Mars, women are from Venus.
Answer Key to Chapter 2 Test Questions
True and False:
Multiple Choice :
