Exam
Name___________________________________
MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the one alternative that best completes the statement or answers the question.
1)
One type of quality cost is:
1)
A)
external failure costs.
B)
prevention costs.
C)
appraisal costs.
D)
all of the above.
Answer:
D
A)
B)
C)
D)
2)
Which quality management process is not focus of the Juran Trilogy?
2)
A)
Quality improvement
B)
Quality planning
C)
Quality control
D)
Quality assurance
Answer:
D
A)
B)
C)
D)
3)
Histograms (or bar charts) where the values being plotted are arranged in descending order are
called:
3)
A)
cause–and–effect diagrams.
B)
project problem charts.
C)
control charts.
D)
Pareto charts.
Answer:
D
A)
B)
C)
D)
4)
Who of the following is not known as a quality management pioneer?
4)
A)
Joseph Juran
B)
Henry Gantt
C)
Philip B. Crosby
D)
W. Edwards Deming
Answer:
B
A)
B)
C)
D)
1
5)
A quality threshold refers to:
5)
A)
a product not being purchased because the cost of quality is too high.
B)
a product not being purchased, regardless of quality, if there is no need to be filled.
C)
a baseline.
D)
a product not being purchased because of low quality.
Answer:
B
A)
B)
C)
D)
6)
Diagrams used to identify potential and real causes of problems that organize problems into
categories are called:
6)
A)
control charts.
B)
project problem charts.
C)
cause–and–effect diagrams.
D)
Pareto charts.
Answer:
C
A)
B)
C)
D)
7)
Graphical, time–based charts used to display process results are called:
7)
A)
control charts.
B)
project problem charts.
C)
Pareto charts.
D)
cause–and–effect diagrams.
Answer:
A
A)
B)
C)
D)
8)
Costs of training staff in design methodologies is an example of:
8)
A)
external failure costs.
B)
internal failure costs.
C)
appraisal costs.
D)
prevention costs.
Answer:
D
A)
B)
C)
D)
9)
________ are tools used to ensure that a specific set of actions has been correctly performed.
9)
A)
Quality metrics
B)
Quality baselines
C)
Quality plans
D)
Quality checklists
Answer:
D
A)
B)
C)
D)
2
10)
Which of the following is NOT a software maturity level?
10)
A)
Improving
B)
Repeatable
C)
Defined
D)
Initial
Answer:
A
A)
B)
C)
D)
11)
An evaluation of the costs and benefits of alternative approaches to a proposed activity to
determine the best alternative is called:
11)
A)
tradeoff evaluation.
B)
alternative evaluation.
C)
quality planning.
D)
cost/benefit analysis.
Answer:
D
A)
B)
C)
D)
12)
Which generic management systems standard is among the most popular in the world?
12)
A)
Malcolm Baldridge National Quality Program
B)
ISO 9000
C)
Total Quality Management
D)
Six Sigma
Answer:
B
A)
B)
C)
D)
13)
What is the highest level of Six Sigma certification?
13)
A)
Master
B)
Grandmaster
C)
Master black belt
D)
Champion
Answer:
D
A)
B)
C)
D)
14)
The basis for which project quality is measured and reported is called:
14)
A)
quality plan.
B)
quality checklist.
C)
quality metric.
D)
quality baseline.
Answer:
D
A)
B)
C)
D)
3
15)
Six Sigma was first conceived of at:
15)
A)
IBM.
B)
Motorola.
C)
DEC.
D)
Toyota.
Answer:
B
A)
B)
C)
D)
16)
All of the following are part of Ishikawa’s actionable items EXCEPT:
16)
A)
determine goals and targets.
B)
check the effects of education and training.
C)
engage in education and training.
D)
take appropriate action.
Answer:
B
A)
B)
C)
D)
17)
All of the following are ISO 9000 principles EXCEPT for:
17)
A)
involvement of stakeholders
B)
customer focus
C)
continual improvement.
D)
involvement of people
Answer:
A
A)
B)
C)
D)
18)
A systematic approach to managing quality that originated in the 1950s is:
18)
A)
TQC.
B)
TDMA.
C)
TQM.
D)
CSMA.
Answer:
C
A)
B)
C)
D)
19)
The Baldridge National Quality Program recognizes outstanding achievements in ________ areas.
19)
A)
six
B)
eight
C)
seven
D)
five
Answer:
C
A)
B)
C)
D)
4
20)
Costs of rework in programming is an example of:
20)
A)
internal failure costs.
B)
prevention costs.
C)
appraisal costs.
D)
external failure costs.
Answer:
A
A)
B)
C)
D)
21)
The process of selecting a random sample from a population in order to infer characteristics about
that population is called:
21)
A)
statistical sampling.
B)
mathematical modeling.
C)
spot–checks.
D)
random inspection.
Answer:
A
A)
B)
C)
D)
22)
The ISO 9000 standards are primarily concerned with the processes the organization does to:
22)
A)
satisfy customer quality requirements.
B)
enhance customer satisfaction.
C)
satisfy regulatory requirements.
D)
all of the above.
Answer:
D
A)
B)
C)
D)
23)
The process of monitoring results to determine if the quality standards of the project are being met
is called:
23)
A)
quality assurance.
B)
quality control.
C)
quality improvement.
D)
quality execution.
Answer:
B
A)
B)
C)
D)
24)
The purpose of Six Sigma is to:
24)
A)
reduce variation.
B)
reduce competitive threats.
C)
reduce problems.
D)
none of the above.
Answer:
A
A)
B)
C)
D)
5
25)
Robert Kaplan and David Norton came up with a system called:
25)
A)
balanced scoring system.
B)
balanced report card.
C)
balanced scorecard.
D)
balanced reporting.
Answer:
C
A)
B)
C)
D)
26)
Quality planning is usually performed:
26)
A)
at the same time that other project planning issues are addressed.
B)
at the very beginning of a project.
C)
after other project planning issues are addressed.
D)
before other project planning issues are addressed.
Answer:
A
A)
B)
C)
D)
27)
The process of identifying relevant quality standards and developing a plan to ensure the project
meets those standards is called:
27)
A)
quality identification.
B)
quality assurance.
C)
quality planning.
D)
quality improvement.
Answer:
C
A)
B)
C)
D)
28)
What is another name for the 80/20 rule?
28)
A)
Law of diminishing returns
B)
Cost of Quality
C)
Pareto principle
D)
Golden rule
Answer:
C
A)
B)
C)
D)
29)
Costs of code inspection and testing is an example of:
29)
A)
internal failure costs.
B)
appraisal costs.
C)
prevention costs.
D)
external failure costs.
Answer:
B
A)
B)
C)
D)
6
30)
Design of experiments uses ________ to test the efficiency of certain project management
approaches by testing factors that may influence a specific variable.
30)
A)
statistical techniques
B)
sophisticated tests
C)
a trial–and–error approach
D)
evaluative techniques
Answer:
A
A)
B)
C)
D)
31)
Quality audits can be:
31)
A)
scheduled.
B)
random.
C)
performed by third–party auditors.
D)
all of the above.
Answer:
D
A)
B)
C)
D)
32)
A plan specifying how quality measures will be implemented during a project is called:
32)
A)
quality improvement plan.
B)
quality baseline.
C)
quality implementation plan.
D)
quality management plan.
Answer:
D
A)
B)
C)
D)
33)
The set of overall intentions and direction of an organization with regard to quality, as formally
expressed by top management is called:
33)
A)
quality management plan.
B)
quality policy.
C)
quality rules.
D)
quality guidelines.
Answer:
B
A)
B)
C)
D)
34)
Cost/benefit analyses are:
34)
A)
utterly useless.
B)
very accurate.
C)
critical to project success.
D)
sometimes criticized for being too simplistic.
Answer:
D
A)
B)
C)
D)
7
35)
A plan specifying how to identify wasteful and non–value added activities is called:
35)
A)
process improvement plan.
B)
activity improvement plan.
C)
quality baseline.
D)
quality management plan.
Answer:
A
A)
B)
C)
D)
36)
A company can assess its capabilities with respect to best practices within a given industry using:
36)
A)
CNN.
B)
CPR.
C)
CMM.
D)
CRT.
Answer:
C
A)
B)
C)
D)
37)
Which quality management pioneer is best known for the fishbone diagram?
37)
A)
Paul Pareto
B)
Joseph Juran
C)
Kaoru Ishikawa
D)
W. Edwards Deming
Answer:
C
A)
B)
C)
D)
38)
The national quality program was named after U.S. Secretary of Commerce:
38)
A)
Carlos Gutierrez
B)
Donald Louis Evans.
C)
William Daley.
D)
Malcolm Baldridge.
Answer:
D
A)
B)
C)
D)
39)
Capability maturity models have ________ levels.
39)
A)
six
B)
five
C)
three
D)
four
Answer:
B
A)
B)
C)
D)
40)
The degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfill ________.
40)
A)
a customer’s needs
B)
requirements
C)
a company’s needs
D)
a project’s needs
Answer:
B
A)
B)
C)
D)
8
41)
Deming’s model is known as:
41)
A)
plan–check–do–act model.
B)
plan–check–act–do model.
C)
plan–do–check–act model.
D)
plan–do–act–check model.
Answer:
C
A)
B)
C)
D)
42)
Which quality management pioneer is best known for the book Quality Is Free?
42)
A)
Paul Pareto
B)
Joseph Juran
C)
Kaoru Ishikawa
D)
Philip B. Crosby
Answer:
D
A)
B)
C)
D)
43)
Which quality management pioneer is best known for the 80/20 rule?
43)
A)
W. Edwards Deming
B)
Joseph Juran
C)
Paul Pareto
D)
Kaoru Ishikawa
Answer:
B
A)
B)
C)
D)
44)
The balanced scorecard suggests viewing organizational activities from the following perspectives
EXCEPT:
44)
A)
the customer perspective.
B)
the stakeholder perspective.
C)
the financial perspective.
D)
the business process perspective.
Answer:
B
A)
B)
C)
D)
45)
Cost of quality includes:
45)
A)
the costs to improve or ensure quality measures.
B)
the costs associated with a lack of quality.
C)
the costs to sell a product.
D)
both A and B.
Answer:
D
A)
B)
C)
D)
9
46)
Operational definitions of specific processes, events, or products, as well as an explanation of how
they will be measured in terms of quality are called:
46)
A)
quality measures.
B)
quality metrics.
C)
quality definitions.
D)
quality specifications.
Answer:
B
A)
B)
C)
D)
47)
The study of a competitor’s products or business practices for the purpose of improving a
company’s performance is called:
47)
A)
comparison.
B)
industrial espionage.
C)
benchmarking.
D)
competitor analysis.
Answer:
C
A)
B)
C)
D)
48)
The process of ensuring that the project meets the standards outlined during the quality planning
phase is called:
48)
A)
quality execution.
B)
quality planning.
C)
quality improvement.
D)
quality assurance.
Answer:
D
A)
B)
C)
D)
49)
A process improvement plan analyzes:
49)
A)
process configuration.
B)
process metrics.
C)
process boundaries.
D)
all of the above.
Answer:
D
A)
B)
C)
D)
50)
Which of the following is NOT part of the Six Sigma methodology?
50)
A)
Analyzing the data collected
B)
Controlling the core business processes
C)
Measuring the core business processes
D)
Improving the target processes
Answer:
B
A)
B)
C)
D)
10
51)
The balanced scorecard approach is:
51)
A)
a measurement system.
B)
a management system.
C)
a mandatory report.
D)
a reporting system.
Answer:
B
A)
B)
C)
D)
52)
Which quality management pioneer is best known for his 14 points of quality?
52)
A)
W. Edwards Deming
B)
Philip B. Crosby
C)
Kaoru Ishikawa
D)
Joseph Juran
Answer:
A
A)
B)
C)
D)
53)
Costs of support and maintenance is an example of:
53)
A)
prevention costs.
B)
internal failure costs.
C)
external failure costs.
D)
appraisal costs.
Answer:
C
A)
B)
C)
D)
54)
Ishikawa’s cause–and–effect diagram is also known as:
54)
A)
fishbone diagram.
B)
skeleton diagram.
C)
quality diagram.
D)
bone diagram.
Answer:
A
A)
B)
C)
D)
SHORT ANSWER. Write the word or phrase that best completes each statement or answers the question.
55)
In the early 1990‘s Robert Kaplan and David Norton created a system called ________.
55)
Answer:
balanced scorecard
56)
________ is the study of a competitor/s products or business practices done for the purpose
of improving a company’s performance.
56)
Answer:
Benchmarking
57)
Control charts are graphical, ________ charts used to display process results.
57)
Answer:
time–based
11
58)
The cost of quality may run from ________ % of total cost for most businesses.
58)
Answer:
15–30
59)
________ is defined as the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfill
requirements.
59)
Answer:
Project quality
60)
Kaoru Ishikawa’s fishbone diagram is a type of ________ diagram.
60)
Answer:
cause–and–effect
61)
The balanced scorecard is seen as a management system, rather than a ________ system.
61)
Answer:
measurement
62)
Quality pioneer W. Edwards Deming is best known for his ________ of quality.
62)
Answer:
14 points
63)
Pareto diagrams are histograms ordered in terms of the ________ that outline project
problems that have been identified.
63)
Answer:
number of occurrences
64)
TQM stands for ________.
64)
Answer:
Total Quality Management
65)
The overall intentions and direction of an organization with regard to quality are
expressed in the ________.
65)
Answer:
quality policy
66)
Kaoru Ishikawa proposed an actionable list of ________ items to achieve quality.
66)
Answer:
six
67)
Prevention costs are a type of costs of ________.
67)
Answer:
conformance
68)
The ________ standards are primarily concerned with quality management.
68)
Answer:
ISO 9000
12
69)
Cost of quality is the cost to improve or ensure quality measures, as well as the cost
associated with ________.
69)
Answer:
a lack of quality
70)
The 80/20 rule is also known as the ________ Principle.
70)
Answer:
Pareto
71)
Appraisal costs are a type of costs of ________.
71)
Answer:
conformance
72)
ISO 9000 is a ________ of standards, rather than a single standard.
72)
Answer:
family
73)
The award established in 1987 to award excellence and quality achievement is called
________.
73)
Answer:
Malcolm Baldridge National Quality Award
74)
________ is the process of identifying relevant standards and developing a plan to ensure
the project meets those standards.
74)
Answer:
Quality planning
75)
External failure costs are a type of costs of ________.
75)
Answer:
non–conformance
76)
In his book Quality Is Free, Philip Crosby defined quality in an ________ so that companies
could readily see whether or not quality existed in the workplace.
76)
Answer:
absolute way
77)
Quality assurance is the process of ensuring that the project meets the ________ outlined
during the quality planning phase.
77)
Answer:
quality standards
78)
________ is the use of statistical techniques to test the efficiency of certain project
management approaches by testing factors that may influence a specific variable.
78)
Answer:
Design of experiments
79)
Quality ________ are tools used to ensure that a specific set of actions has been correctly
performed.
79)
Answer:
checklists
13
80)
________ requires management and employees to become involved in the continuous
improvement of the goods and services a firm produces.
80)
Answer:
Total Quality Management (TQM)
81)
Six Sigma is a registered trademark of ________.
81)
Answer:
the Motorola Company
82)
Internal failure costs are a type of costs of ________.
82)
Answer:
non–conformance
83)
________ is the process of monitoring results to determine if the quality standards of the
project are being met.
83)
Answer:
Quality control
84)
________ models are used to determine a company’s capabilities with respect to best
practices within a given industry.
84)
Answer:
Capability maturity
85)
The costs of code inspection and testing are an example of ________ costs.
85)
Answer:
appraisal
86)
Statistical sampling is the process of selecting a ________ from a population in order to
infer characteristics about that population.
86)
Answer:
random sample
87)
The highest level of Six Sigma proficiency is ________.
87)
Answer:
champion
88)
The costs of training staff in design methodologies are an example of ________ costs.
88)
Answer:
prevention
89)
________ is a summary of the status of project deliverables, any performance measures that
have been collected, and any implemented changes from the original project management
plan.
89)
Answer:
Work performance information
90)
A ________ is the basis for which project quality is reported.
90)
Answer:
quality baseline
14
91)
The costs of support and maintenance are an example of ________ costs.
91)
Answer:
external failure
92)
________ are structured and independent review activities designed to review other
quality management procedures and to identify potential lessons learned.
92)
Answer:
Quality audits
93)
A ________ specifies how quality measures will be implemented during a project.
93)
Answer:
quality management plan
94)
________ examines not what is done, but how it was done.
94)
Answer:
Process analysis
95)
________ is the use of measurement and testing procedures to determine whether results
conform to the particular project standards.
95)
Answer:
Inspection
96)
A ________ refers to the notion that a product may be of very high quality, yet if there is no
customer need to be filled, it will not be purchased, regardless of quality.
96)
Answer:
quality threshold
97)
A process improvement plan specifies how to identify ________.
97)
Answer:
wasteful and non–value added activities
98)
The costs of rework in programming are an example of ________ costs.
98)
Answer:
internal failure
99)
Quality metrics are ________ of specific processes, events, or products as well as
explanations of how they will be measured in terms of quality.
99)
Answer:
operational definitions
TRUE/FALSE. Write ‘T’ if the statement is true and ‘F’ if the statement is false.
100)
Benchmarking is the study of a competitor’s product or business practices in order to improve the
performance of one’s own company
100)
Answer:
True
False
15
101)
The balanced scorecard suggests viewing organizational activity from five perspectives: the
learning and growth perspective, the business process perspective, the customer perspective, the
stakeholder perspective, and the financial perspective.
101)
Answer:
True
False
102)
Cost of quality can be both the cost of conformance and cost of non–conformance.
102)
Answer:
True
False
103)
The overall intentions and direction of an organization with regard to quality are expressed in the
quality plan.
103)
Answer:
True
False
104)
ISO 9000 is a voluntary generic management systems standard.
104)
Answer:
True
False
105)
W. Edwards Deming is best known for his 17 points of quality.
105)
Answer:
True
False
106)
The Juran Trilogy focuses on quality planning, quality assurance, and quality control.
106)
Answer:
True
False
107)
Philip Crosby defined quality in an absolute way so that companies could readily see whether or
not quality existed in the workplace.
107)
Answer:
True
False
108)
Quality checklists are used to ensure that a specific set of actions has been correctly performed.
108)
Answer:
True
False
109)
Quality is dependent on who the quality issue affects.
109)
Answer:
True
False
110)
Quality audits are random reviews performed by external entities.
110)
Answer:
True
False
111)
A quality improvement plan specifies how quality measures will be implemented during a project.
111)
Answer:
True
False
16
112)
Many failed ERP implementations can be attributed to a lack of attention to project quality
management.
112)
Answer:
True
False
113)
Quality control is the process of monitoring results to determine if the quality standards of the
project are being met.
113)
Answer:
True
False
114)
Quality improvement is the process of ensuring that the project meets the quality standards
outlined during the quality planning phase.
114)
Answer:
True
False
115)
A quality improvement plan specifies how to identify wasteful and non–value–added activities.
115)
Answer:
True
False
116)
The highest level of Six Sigma proficiency is the master black belt.
116)
Answer:
True
False
117)
Process analysis looks at what is done.
117)
Answer:
True
False
118)
A quality baseline is the basis for which project quality is measured and reported.
118)
Answer:
True
False
119)
TQM requires only top management to become involved in the continuous improvement of the
goods and services a firm produces.
119)
Answer:
True
False
120)
Control charts are histograms ordered in terms of the number of occurrences that outline project
problems that have been identified.
120)
Answer:
True
False
121)
The purpose of the Six Sigma quality methodology is to reduce variation and, therefore, the
number of product or service defects.
121)
Answer:
True
False
122)
The balanced scorecard is a measurement system, rather than a management system.
122)
Answer:
True
False
17
123)
Ishikawa extended Deming’s plan–do–check–act model to create an actionable list of six items.
123)
Answer:
True
False
ESSAY. Write your answer in the space provided or on a separate sheet of paper.
124)
Define quality assurance and describe the unique tools and techniques used for quality assurance processes.
Answer:
The quality assurance process is comprised of all the activities and actions required to ensure that the
project meets the quality standards outlined during the quality planning phase. Quality assurance is
typically overseen by a quality assurance department, a group responsible for making sure that a project
satisfies all of the processes needed to meet stakeholder requirements.
The tools and techniques used as part of the quality planning process can also be used during quality
assurance. Two new tools are also used in the quality assurance process, specifically quality audits and
process analysis.
Quality audits are activities designed to review other quality management procedures as well as to
identify potential lessons learned. In a quality audit, the review is conducted in either scheduled or
random fashion by trained personnel from within the organization or, in some cases, by qualified
third–party auditors. Quality auditors typically examine a number of different project facets looking for
ineffective or inefficient policies, processes, or procedures. Quality auditors may start with an established
checklist and rate the various project facets evaluated.
Another tool used in the quality assurance process is a process analysis, which examines not what is done
but how it was done.
125)
Describe the ISO 9000 family of standards. In what ways can ISO 9000 help an organization?
Answer:
In 1987, the International Organization for Standardization instituted the voluntary ISO 9000 standard.
ISO 9000 is a generic management systems standard, which signifies that it is applicable to any industry
or organization, including information systems focused enterprises. ISO 9000 is one of the most popular
quality standards in the world. Thousands of organizations have adopted it and more continue to do so
on a regular basis.
The ISO 9000 standard is primarily concerned with quality management, specifically the processes that
the organization performs to satisfy customer quality requirements, to satisfy regulatory requirements, to
enhance customer satisfaction, and finally to provide for continual improvement in performance of these
objectives. ISO 9000 is based on quality management principles that focus on different aspects of an
organization’s purpose.
As a family of standards, ISO 9000 can be customized and applied to various industries. One example
specific to information systems development is the problem of software configuration management. In
the process of building computer software, change frequently occurs during the development stage.
Despite the intention to control factors like scope creep, user requirements frequently need to be modified
as a project moves forward. Software configuration management is a set of activities designed to help
manage or control such changes by assisting developers or project managers in identifying those work
products that are most likely to change, establishing relationships among work products so that the
developer can anticipate any associated changes that will also need to be made, defining ways to manage
different versions of work products, and reporting on changes that have been made. ISO 9000 can
provide guidance to help a firm establish documented procedures for controlling such changes.
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126)
Describe cost of quality and its major categories. How can organizations decrease the costs associated with
software quality?
Answer:
The cost of quality is comprised of both the costs to improve or ensure quality measures and the costs
associated with a lack of quality. More specifically, the cost of quality might represent the amount of
money a business could lose from a products or services not being done well the first time around. These
costs can include anything from rework to lawsuits resulting from poor quality.
The costs of quality are divided into two major categories: conformance and nonconformance. The cost of
conformance is the amount spent on achieving high–quality products. This category of quality costs is
further divided into prevention and appraisal costs. Prevention costs are those associated with
preventing any defects before they happen, whereas appraisal costs are those incurred in assuring
conformance to quality standards. The cost of nonconformance includes all the expenses that result when
things go wrong. This category of quality costs is also further divided into two subcategories, internal
failure costs and external failure costs. Internal failure costs occur before the product is sent to the
customer, whereas external failure costs arise from product failure at the customer’s location.
The best strategy to decrease the costs associated with software quality involves:
·Avoiding any failure costs by driving defects to zero
·Investing in prevention activities to improve quality
·Reducing appraisal costs as quality improves
·Continuously evaluating and altering preventive efforts for more improvement
127)
Briefly outline the achievements of the most well–known quality management pioneers.
Answer:
W. Edwards Deming, who received a PhD in mathematics from Yale University in 1928, is probably best
known for his 14 points of quality. In addition to his academic appointments as a statistician and quality
expert, as well as his numerous books, Deming achieved worldwide prominence and became known as
the “prophet of quality.” He played a significant role in the economic resurgence in Japan following
World War II, where he served as a consultant to Japanese industry. This role is particularly noteworthy
because Deming‘s management philosophies had a significant impact on Japanese business thinking
and, as a result, on global trade as corporations competed on quality.
Dr. Joseph Juran is often credited with adding the human element to what was previously a statistical
view of project quality. Dr. Juran is further credited with the Pareto Principle, or the 80/20 rule, a quality
tool. Juran authored both the Quality Control Handbook and the Juran Trilogy. The Juran Trilogy was
accepted worldwide as a model for quality management; it focused on the three areas of quality
planning, quality improvement, and quality control.
Philip B. Crosby dedicated his career to convincing managers that preventing problems was cheaper
than fixing them. In his groundbreaking work Quality is Free (1979), Crosby defined quality in an
absolute way so that companies could readily see whether or not quality existed in the workplace using
four absolutes of quality management.
Kaoru Ishikawa is best known for his cause–and–effect diagram, also called a fishbone diagram, a
diagramming technique used to explore potential and real causes of problems. The fishbone diagram
typically organizes problems into categories relevant to the industry. Ishikawa was also known for his
insistence that quality could always be taken one step farther. Ishikawa expanded on Deming’s
plan–do–check–act model to create an actionable list of six items.
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