Chapter 06
1. Perception is a “sense-making” process; people interpret their ____________ so they can
make appropriate responses to it.
2. The perceiver’s own needs, desires, motivations, and personal experiences may be likely to
create a ____________ about the other party in an upcoming negotiation.
3. ________________________ occur when people generalize about a variety of attributes
based on the knowledge of one attribute of an individual.
4. Projection occurs when people ascribe to others the characteristics or ____________ that
they possess themselves.
5. A ____________ is the subjective mechanism through which people evaluate and make
sense out of situations, leading them to pursue or avoid subsequent actions.
6. The frames of those who hear or interpret communication may create ____________ of their
own.
7. ____________ in frames between parties are sources of conflict.
8. Parties who focus on ____________ in a dispute are often able to find ways to resolve that
dispute.
9. Disputes settled by ____________ usually create clear winners and losers.
10. Frames are shaped by conversations that the parties have with each other about the issues in
the _______________________.
11. ____________ can also occur as one party uses metaphors, analogies, or specific cases to
illustrate a point.
12. Frames shape what the parties define as the ________________________ and how they talk
about them.
13. Negotiators operating under ____________ also reached agreements having higher joint
value for the two parties.
14. Negotiations in which the outcomes are ____________ framed tend to produce fewer
concessions, reach fewer agreements, and perceive outcomes as less fair.
15. ____________ is the tendency of negotiators to believe that their ability to be correct or
16. The ____________________________ is the tendency to neglect to use information that is
available but expressed in numerical probabilities.
17. ________________________ is the process of devaluing the other party‘s concessions simply
because the other party made them.
18. Misperceptions and cognitive biases typically arise out of ________________________ as
negotiators gather and process information.
19. Considering mood and emotion, negotiators are portrayed as rational beings who seem
___________, calm, and in control.
20. Negotiators may intentionally manipulate ____________ in order to get the other side to adopt
certain beliefs or take certain actions.
emotion
21. Perception is the process by which individuals “connect” to their environment.
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22. Stereotyping and halo effects are examples of perceptual distortion by the anticipation of
encountering certain attributes and qualities in another person.
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23. Halo effects can be positive or negative.
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24. If perceptual distortions and initial assumptions are correct, then negotiators may not be able
to reverse their effects.
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25. A perceptual bias is the subjective mechanism through which people evaluate and make
sense out of situations.
26. Framing is about focusing, shaping, and organizing the world around us but does not define
persons, events or processes.
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27. Frames are important in negotiation because disputes are often nebulous and open to
different interpretations.
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28. A characterization frame can clearly be shaped by experience with the other party but identity
frames (of self) tend to be negative while the characterization frames tend to be positive.
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29. The frames of those who hear or interpret communication may create biases of their own.
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30. Parties are likely to assume a particular frame because of one factor.
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31. Disputes over rights are sometimes referred to formal or informal arbitrators to decide whose
standards or rights are more appropriate.
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32. The definition of issues at stake in a negotiation may not change as the discussion evolves.
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33. Early in a negotiation, it is not uncommon for the parties to “talk past each other.”
34. When brought into the conversation, these secondary concerns often transform the
conversation about the primary issues.
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35. The way an issue is framed will not influence how negotiators perceive risk and behave in
relation to it.
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36. Negotiators always ask about the other party’s perceptions and thoughts.
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37. The question of how best to manage perceptual and cognitive bias is not a difficult one.
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38. Reframing does not require negotiators to be flexible during a negotiation but they should
anticipate that multiple contingencies may arise during negotiations.
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39. Telling people about a perceptual or cognitive bias, or having them discuss things in a group
meeting, will make the bias go away.
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40. Negotiators who feel positive emotions are more likely to be inflexible in how they arrive at a
solution to a problem.
41. Perception is
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42. Which of the following lists the stages of the perceptual process in the correct order?
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43. Halo effects occur when
44. Projection occurs when
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45. Frames are important in negotiation because
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46. In which type of frame would parties be more likely to engage primarily in distributive (win-
lose or lose-lose) negotiations than in other types?
47. An insight drawn from research of the frames negotiators use in disputes would suggest that
parties discussing salary may be likely to use outcome frames and may be related to which of the
following?
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48. Those attempting to negotiate in China recognize the value the Chinese place in saving
“face.” Which of the following cultural elements should also be examined in approaching discussions
with the Chinese?
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49. Frames are shaped by conversations that the parties have with each other about the issues
in the bargaining mix. Which of the following factors can affect how the conversation is shaped?
50. One of the most important aspects of framing as issue development is the process of
reframing, or the manner in which the thrust, tone, and focus of a conversation change as the parties
engage in it. Reframing is or occurs:
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51. The irrational escalation of commitment bias refers to
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52. Which of the following is not a cognitive bias?
53. The availability of information bias operates with which of the following statements?
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54. Which of the following cognitive biases can lead negotiators to discount the worth or validity
of the judgment of others?
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55. The Endowment Effect
56. Reactive devaluation
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57. The best way to manage perceptual and cognitive biases is:
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58. The distinction between mood and emotion is based on which of the following
characteristics?
59. Negative emotions may lead parties to
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60. Which of the following statements about how emotion plays a part in negotiation is accurate?
61. Define perception.
62. Define perceptual distortion by generalization.
Perceptual distortion by generalization occurs when small amounts of perceptual information are
used to draw large conclusions about individuals.
63. What is stereotyping?
64. How does projection occur?
65. A key issue in perception and negotiation is framing. What is framing?
66. How are frames critical in negotiations?
67. How does an outcome frame function in an environmental dispute?
68. Why are mismatches in frames between parties sources of conflicts?
69. List the five concepts from Chinese culture, as identified by C. Tinsley that those attempting
to negotiate in China should recognize.
70. What role do frames play in the way they are constructed so that bargainers define problems
and courses of action jointly through their talk?
71. How do multiple agenda items operate to shape issue development?
72. Define cognitive biases.
Systematic errors made when processing information.
73. Explain “Irrational Escalation of Commitment.”
74. What can help prevent errors of anchoring and adjustment?
75. Both risk-averse and risk-seeking framing is part of what theory?
76. What are the two things to keep in mind about the effect of frames on risk in negotiation
(according to Neale and Bazerman)?
77. In negotiation, when does the availability bias operate?
78. What is the best remedy for the winner’s curse?
79. Describe the double-edged effect of overconfidence.
80. Define the fundamental attribution error.
When people “explain” another’s behavior, the tendency is to overestimate the causal role of personal
or internal factors and underestimate the causal role of situational or external factors.