9–1
CHAPTER 9
INVENTORY COSTING AND CAPACITY ANALYSIS
9–1 No. Differences in operating income between variable costing and absorption costing are
due to accounting for fixed manufacturing costs. Under variable costing only variable
manufacturing costs are included as inventoriable costs. Under absorption costing both variable
and fixed manufacturing costs are included as inventoriable costs. Fixed marketing and
distribution costs are not accounted for differently under variable costing and absorption costing.
9–2 The term direct costing is a misnomer for variable costing for two reasons:
a. Variable costing does not include all direct costs as inventoriable costs. Only variable
direct manufacturing costs are included. Any fixed direct manufacturing costs, and
any direct nonmanufacturing costs (either variable or fixed), are excluded from
inventoriable costs.
b. Variable costing includes as inventoriable costs not only direct manufacturing costs
but also some indirect costs (variable indirect manufacturing costs).
9–3 No. The difference between absorption costing and variable costs is due to accounting for
fixed manufacturing costs. As service or merchandising companies have no fixed manufacturing
costs, these companies do not make choices between absorption costing and variable costing.
9–4 The main issue between variable costing and absorption costing is the proper timing of
the release of fixed manufacturing costs as costs of the period:
a. at the time of incurrence, or
b. at the time the finished units to which the fixed overhead relates are sold.
Variable costing uses (a) and absorption costing uses (b).
9–5 No. A company that makes a variable–cost/fixed–cost distinction is not forced to use any
specific costing method. The Stassen Company example in the text of Chapter 9 makes a
variable–cost/fixed–cost distinction. As illustrated, it can use variable costing, absorption costing,
or throughput costing.
A company that does not make a variable–cost/fixed–cost distinction cannot use variable
costing or throughput costing. However, it is not forced to adopt absorption costing. For internal
reporting, it could, for example, classify all costs as costs of the period in which they are
incurred.
9–6 Variable costing does not view fixed costs as unimportant or irrelevant, but it maintains
that the distinction between behaviors of different costs is crucial for certain decisions. The
planning and management of fixed costs is critical, irrespective of what inventory costing
method is used.
9–7 Under absorption costing, heavy reductions of inventory during the accounting period
might combine with low production and a large production volume variance. This combination
could result in lower operating income even if the unit sales level rises.
9–8 (a) The factors that affect the breakeven point under variable costing are:
1. Fixed (manufacturing and operating) costs.
2. Contribution margin per unit.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. SM Cost Accounting 14/e by Horngren
9–2
(b) The factors that affect the breakeven point under absorption costing are:
1. Fixed (manufacturing and operating) costs.
2. Contribution margin per unit.
3. Production level in units in excess of breakeven sales in units.
4. Denominator level chosen to set the fixed manufacturing cost rate.
9–9 Examples of dysfunctional decisions managers may make to increase reported operating
income are:
a. Plant managers may switch production to those orders that absorb the highest amount
of fixed manufacturing overhead, irrespective of the demand by customers.
b. Plant managers may accept a particular order to increase production even though
another plant in the same company is better suited to handle that order.
c. Plant managers may defer maintenance beyond the current period to free up more
time for production.
9–10 Approaches used to reduce the negative aspects associated with using absorption costing
include:
a. Change the accounting system:
Adopt either variable or throughput costing, both of which reduce the incentives
of managers to produce for inventory.
Adopt an inventory holding charge for managers who tie up funds in inventory.
b. Extend the time period used to evaluate performance. By evaluating performance
over a longer time period (say, 3 to 5 years), the incentive to take short–run actions
that reduce long–term income is lessened.
c. Include nonfinancial as well as financial variables in the measures used to evaluate
performance.
9–11 The theoretical capacity and practical capacity denominator–level concepts emphasize
what a plant can supply. The normal capacity utilization and master–budget capacity utilization
concepts emphasize what customers demand for products produced by a plant.
9–12 The downward demand spiral is the continuing reduction in demand for a company‘s
product that occurs when the prices of competitors‘ products are not met and (as demand drops
further), higher and higher unit costs result in more and more reluctance to meet competitors‘
prices. Pricing decisions need to consider competitors and customers as well as costs.
9–13 No. It depends on how a company handles the production–volume variance in the end–of–
period financial statements. For example, if the adjusted allocation–rate approach is used, each
denominator–level capacity concept will give the same financial statement numbers at year–end.
9–14 For tax reporting in the U.S., the IRS requires only that indirect production costs are
―fairly‖ apportioned among all items produced. Overhead rates based on normal or master–
budget capacity utilization, as well as the practical capacity concept are permitted. At year–end,
proration of any variances between inventories and cost of goods sold is required (unless the
variance is immaterial in amount).
9–15 No. The costs of having too much capacity/too little capacity involve revenue
opportunities potentially forgone as well as costs of money tied up in plant assets.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. SM Cost Accounting 14/e by Horngren
9–3
9–16 (30 min.) Variable and absorption costing, explaining operating–income differences.
1. Key inputs for income statement computations are
April
May
Beginning inventory
Production
Goods available for sale
Units sold
Ending inventory
0
500
500
350
150
150
400
550
520
30
The budgeted fixed cost per unit and budgeted total manufacturing cost per unit under absorption
costing are
April
May
(a) Budgeted fixed manufacturing costs
(b) Budgeted production
(c)=(a)÷(b) Budgeted fixed manufacturing cost per unit
(d) Budgeted variable manufacturing cost per unit
(e)=(c)+(d) Budgeted total manufacturing cost per unit
$2,000,000
500
$4,000
$10,000
$14,000
$2,000,000
500
$4,000
$10,000
$14,000
(a) Variable costing
April 2011
May 2011
Revenuesa
$8,400,000
$12,480,000
Variable costs
Beginning inventory
$ 0
$1,500,000
Variable manufacturing costsb
5,000,000
4,000,000
Cost of goods available for sale
5,000,000
5,500,000
Deduct ending inventoryc
(1,500,000)
(300,000)
Variable cost of goods sold
3,500,000
5,200,000
Variable operating costsd
1,050,000
1,560,000
Total variable costs
4,550,000
6,760,000
Contribution margin
3,850,000
5,720,000
Fixed costs
Fixed manufacturing costs
2,000,000
2,000,000
Fixed operating costs
600,000
600,000
Total fixed costs
2,600,000
2,600,000
Operating income
$1,250,000
$3,120,000
a $24,000 × 350; $24,000 × 520 c $10,000 × 150; $10,000 × 30
b $10,000 × 500; $10,000 × 400 d $3,000 × 350; $3,000 × 520
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. SM Cost Accounting 14/e by Horngren
9–4
(b) Absorption costing
April 2011
May 2011
Revenuesa
$8,400,000
$12,480,000
Cost of goods sold
Beginning inventory
$ 0
$2,100,000
Variable manufacturing costsb
5,000,000
4,000,000
Allocated fixed manufacturing costsc
2,000,000
1,600,000
Cost of goods available for sale
7,000,000
7,700,000
Deduct ending inventoryd
(2,100,000)
(420,000)
Adjustment for prod.-vol. variancee
0
400,000 U
Cost of goods sold
4,900,000
7,680,000
Gross margin
3,500,000
4,800,000
Operating costs
Variable operating costsf
1,050,000
1,560,000
Fixed operating costs
600,000
600,000
Total operating costs
1,650,000
2,160,000
Operating income
$1,850,000
$ 2,640,000
a $24,000 × 350; $24,000 × 520 d $14,000 × 150; $14,000 × 30
b $10,000 × 500; $10,000 × 400 e $2,000,000 – $2,000,000; $2,000,000 – $1,600,000
c $4,000 × 500; $4,000 × 400 f $3,000 × 350; $3,000 × 520
2.
Absorption–costing
operating income
–
Variable–costing
operating income
=
Fixed manufacturing costs
in ending inventory
–
Fixed manufacturing costs
in beginning inventory
April:
$1,850,000 – $1,250,000 = ($4,000 × 150) – ($0)
$600,000 = $600,000
May:
$2,640,000 – $3,120,000 = ($4,000 × 30) – ($4,000 × 150)
– $480,000 = $120,000 – $600,000
– $480,000 = – $480,000
The difference between absorption and variable costing is due solely to moving fixed
manufacturing costs into inventories as inventories increase (as in April) and out of inventories
as they decrease (as in May).
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. SM Cost Accounting 14/e by Horngren
9–5
9–17 (20 min.) Throughput costing (continuation of Exercise 9–16).
1.
April 2011
May 2011
Revenuesa
$8,400,000
$12,480,000
Direct material cost of goods sold
Beginning inventory
Direct materials in goods
manufacturedb
$ 0
3,350,000
$1,005,000
2,680,000
Cost of goods available for sale
Deduct ending inventoryc
3,350,000
(1,005,000)
3,685,000
(201,000)
Total direct material cost of goods sold
Throughput margin
Other costs
2,345,000
6,055,000
3,484,000
8,996,000
Manufacturing costs
3,650,000d
3,320,000e
Other operating costs
1,650,000f
2,160,000g
Total other costs
Operating income
5,300,000
$ 755,000
5,480,000
$ 3,516,000
a $24,000 × 350; $24,000 × 520 e ($3,300 × 400) + $2,000,000
b $6,700 × 500; $6,700 × 400 f ($3,000 × 350) + $600,000
c $6,700 × 150; $6,700 × 30 g ($3,000 × 520) + $600,000
d ($3,300 × 500) + $2,000,000
2. Operating income under:
April
May
Variable costing
Absorption costing
Throughput costing
$1,250,000
1,850,000
755,000
$3,120,000
2,640,000
3,516,000
In April, throughput costing has the lowest operating income, whereas in May throughput
costing has the highest operating income. Throughput costing puts greater emphasis on sales as
the source of operating income than does either absorption or variable costing.
3. Throughput costing puts a penalty on production without a corresponding sale in the
same period. Costs other than direct materials that are variable with respect to production are
expensed in the period of incurrence, whereas under variable costing they would be capitalized.
As a result, throughput costing provides less incentive to produce for inventory than either
variable costing or absorption costing.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. SM Cost Accounting 14/e by Horngren
9–6
9–18 (40 min.) Variable and absorption costing, explaining operating–income differences.
1. Key inputs for income statement computations are:
January
February
March
Beginning inventory
Production
Goods available for sale
Units sold
Ending inventory
0
1,000
1,000
700
300
300
800
1,100
800
300
300
1,250
1,550
1,500
50
The budgeted fixed manufacturing cost per unit and budgeted total manufacturing cost
per unit under absorption costing are:
January
February
March
(a) Budgeted fixed manufacturing costs
(b) Budgeted production
(c)=(a)÷(b) Budgeted fixed manufacturing cost per unit
(d) Budgeted variable manufacturing cost per unit
(e)=(c)+(d) Budgeted total manufacturing cost per unit
$400,000
1,000
$ 400
$ 900
$ 1,300
$400,000
1,000
$ 400
$ 900
$ 1,300
$400,000
1,000
$ 400
$ 900
$ 1,300
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. SM Cost Accounting 14/e by Horngren
9–7
(a) Variable Costing
January 2012
February 2012
March 2012
Revenuesa
$1,750,000
$2,000,000
$3,750,000
Variable costs
Beginning inventoryb
$ 0
$270,000
$ 270,000
Variable manufacturing costsc
900,000
720,000
1,125,000
Cost of goods available for sale
Deduct ending inventoryd
900,000
(270,000)
990,000
(270,000)
1,395,000
(45,000)
Variable cost of goods sold
Variable operating costse
Total variable costs
630,000
420,000
1,050,000
720,000
480,000
1,200,000
1,350,000
900,000
2,250,000
Contribution margin
Fixed costs
Fixed manufacturing costs
Fixed operating costs
Total fixed costs
Operating income
400,000
140,000
700,000
540,000
$ 160,000
400,000
140,000
800,000
540,000
$ 260,000
400,000
140,000
1,500,000
540,000
$ 960,000
a $2,500 × 700; $2,500 × 800; $2,500 × 1,500
b $? × 0; $900 × 300; $900 × 300
c $900 × 1,000; $900 × 800; $900 × 1,250
d $900 × 300; $900 × 300; $900 × 50
e $600 × 700; $600 × 800; $600 × 1,500
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. SM Cost Accounting 14/e by Horngren
9–8
(b) Absorption Costing
January 2012
February 2012
March 2012
Revenuesa
Cost of goods sold
Beginning inventoryb
$ 0
$1,750,000
$ 390,000
$2,000,000
$ 390,000
$3,750,000
Variable manufacturing costsc
900,000
720,000
1,125,000
Allocated fixed manufacturing
costsd
400,000
320,000
500,000
Cost of goods available for sale
1,300,000
1,430,000
2,015,000
Deduct ending inventorye
(390,000)
(390,000)
(65,000)
Adjustment for prod. vol. var.f
0
80,000 U
(100,000) F
Cost of goods sold
910,000
1,120,000
1,850,000
Gross margin
840,000
880,000
1,900,000
Operating costs
Variable operating costsg
420,000
480,000
900,000
Fixed operating costs
140,000
140,000
140,000
Total operating costs
560,000
620,000
1,040,000
Operating income
$ 280,000
$ 260,000
$ 860,000
a $2,500 × 700; $2,500 × 800; $2,500 × 1,500
b $?× 0; $1,300 × 300; $1,300 × 300
c $900 × 1,000; $900 × 800; $900 × 1,250
d $400 × 1,000; $400 × 800; $400 × 1,250
e $1,300 × 300; $1,300 × 300; $1,300 × 50
f $400,000 – $400,000; $400,000 – $320,000; $400,000 – $500,000
g $600 × 700; $600 × 800; $600 × 1,500
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. SM Cost Accounting 14/e by Horngren
9–9
2.
Absorption–costingVariable costingFixed manufacturingFixed manufacturing
operatingoperatingcosts in costs in
income incomeending inventorybeginning inventory
January: $280,000 – $160,000 = ($400 × 300) – $0
$120,000 = $120,000
February: $260,000 – $260,000 = ($400 × 300) – ($400 × 300)
$0 = $0
March: $860,000 – $960,000 = ($400 × 50) – ($400 × 300)
– $100,000 = – $100,000
The difference between absorption and variable costing is due solely to moving fixed
manufacturing costs into inventories as inventories increase (as in January) and out of
inventories as they decrease (as in March).
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. SM Cost Accounting 14/e by Horngren
9–10
9–19 (20–30 min.) Throughput costing (continuation of Exercise 9–18).
1.
January
February
March
Revenuesa
Direct material cost of
goods sold
Beginning inventoryb
$ 0
$1,750,000
$150,000
$2,000,000
$ 150,000
$3,750,000
Direct materials in goods
manufacturedc
Cost of goods available
for sale
Deduct ending inventoryd
Total direct material
cost of goods sold
500,000
500,000
(150,000)
350,000
400,000
550,000
(150,000)
400,000
625,000
775,000
(25,000)
750,000
Throughput margin
1,400,000
1,600,000
3,000,000
Other costs
Manufacturinge
Operatingf
Total other costs
Operating income
800,000
560,000
1,360,000
$ 40,000
720,000
620,000
1,340,000
$ 260,000
900,000
1,040,000
1,940,000
$1,060,000
a $2,500 × 700; $2,500 × 800; $2,500 × 1,500
b $? × 0; $500 × 300; $500 × 300
c $500 × 1,000; $500 × 800; $500 × 1,250
d $500 × 300; $500 × 300; $500 ×50
e ($400 × 1,000) + $400,000; ($400 × 800) + $400,000; ($400 × 1,250) + $400,000
f ($600 × 700) + $140,000; ($600 × 800) + $140,000; ($600 × 1,500) + $140,000
2. Operating income under:
January
February
March
Variable costing
Absorption costing
Throughput costing
$160,000
280,000
40,000
$260,000
260,000
260,000
$ 960,000
860,000
1,060,000
Throughput costing puts greater emphasis on sales as the source of operating income than does
absorption or variable costing. Accordingly, income under throughput costing is highest in
periods where the number of units sold is relatively large (as in March) and lower in periods of
weaker sales (as in January).
3. Throughput costing puts a penalty on producing without a corresponding sale in the same
period. Costs other than direct materials that are variable with respect to production are expensed
when incurred, whereas under variable costing they would be capitalized as an inventoriable
cost.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. SM Cost Accounting 14/e by Horngren
9–11
9–20 (40 min) Variable versus absorption costing.
1.
Beginning Inventory + 2012 Production = 2012 Sales + Ending Inventory
85,000 units + 2012 Production = 345,400 units + 34,500 units
2012 Production = 294,900 units
Income Statement for the Zwatch Company, Variable Costing
for the Year Ended December 31, 2012
Revenues: $22 × 345,400
$7,598,800
Variable costs
Beginning inventory: $5.10 × 85,000
$ 433,500
Variable manufacturing costs: $5.10 × 294,900
1,503,990
Cost of goods available for sale
1,937,490
Deduct ending inventory: $5.10 × 34,500
(175,950)
Variable cost of goods sold
1,761,540
Variable operating costs: $1.10 × 345,400
379,940
Adjustment for variances
0
Total variable costs
2,141,480
Contribution margin
5,457,320
Fixed costs
Fixed manufacturing overhead costs
1,440,000
Fixed operating costs
1,080,000
Total fixed costs
2,520,000
Operating income
$2,937,320
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. SM Cost Accounting 14/e by Horngren
Absorption Costing Data
Fixed manufacturing overhead allocation rate =
Fixed manufacturing overhead/Denominator level machine–hours = $1,440,000 6,000
= $240 per machine–hour
Fixed manufacturing overhead allocation rate per unit =
Fixed manufacturing overhead allocation rate/standard production rate = $240 50
= $4.80 per unit
Income Statement for the Zwatch Company, Absorption Costing
for the Year Ended December 31, 2012
Revenues: $22 × 345,400
$7,598,800
Cost of goods sold
Beginning inventory ($5.10 + $4.80) × 85,000
$ 841,500
Variable manuf. costs: $5.10 × 294,900
1,503,990
Allocated fixed manuf. costs: $4.80 × 294,900
1,415,520
Cost of goods available for sale
$3,761,010
Deduct ending inventory: ($5.10 + $4.80) × 34,500
(341,550)
Adjust for manuf. variances ($4.80 × 5,100)a
24,480 U
Cost of goods sold
3,443,940
Gross margin
4,154,860
Operating costs
Variable operating costs: $1.10 × 345,400
$ 379,940
Fixed operating costs
1,080,000
Total operating costs
1,459,940
Operating income
$2,694,920
Under variable costing:
Revenues
Operating income
Operating income as percentage of revenues
Under absorption costing:
Revenues
Operating income
Operating income as percentage of revenues
