JAPANESE AND INDIAN LITERATURE
The literature of Japan presents a rich source of beauty and new ideas highly
significant to the West. The Western discovery of Japanese literature was aided by
William George Aston’s A History of Japanese Literature first published in New York in
1899.
Chinese elements are regarded as a true part of Japanese literature, just as the
literature of Greece and Rome are an integral part of Western literature. The literary forms
of China, as well as Chinese ideographic forms, are at the root of Japanese literature.
The Japanese have an extensive literature spanning more than twelve centuries,
which are divided into different periods.
Archaic Period
It was marked by two events that were of prime importance to the development of
literature in Japan:
• Introduction of the art of writing (kanji) from China Until they became acquainted
with the Chinese, the Japanese had no written characters. Chinese characters
were adopted to write Japanese, creating what is known as the man’yōgana, the
earliest form of kana or syllabic writing.
• First propagation of the Buddhist religion Buddhism gained much greater
importance in Japan. It took on the highly aristocratic and uniquely Japanese form.
It was influenced in developing Zen or Japanese culture. Literature during this
period was mostly a series of songs and poems about war and historical incidents,
and series of norito or prayers to the gods of the Shinto, a Japanese religion.
Nara Period
Considered as the Golden Age of Poetry, it began in 710 AD when Nara was made
the seat of the Mikado’s government and ended 794 AD when the capital was moved to
Nagaoka. It produced two important literary works:
a. Kojiki or Records of Ancient Matters, which contain the early traditions of the
Japanese race, mythology, and legendary history; and
b. Man’yōshū or Collection of Ten Thousand Poems, the oldest extant anthology of
Japanese poetry. Divided into twenty chapters or kan, it contains some 4,500
poems written over a period of about 440 years and representing the works of
several hundred poets. This collection employs two principal poetic forms: tanka
or short poem, the most universal form of poetry in Japan, made up of 31 syllables
arranged in five lines or units; and choka or long poem, formed with 31 syllables
with undefined length and concluding with an extra seven-syllable line.
The representative prose works during this period are the following:
a. Shoku-Nihongi, a history text;
b. Izumo Fudoki, an ancient record of Izumo; and
c. Nihon Shoki or Chronicles of Japan, the second oldest book of classical Japanese
history. This is a text that shows the history of Japan from its origins until 697 AD.
These texts provide historical accounts of how Japan came to be as a nation.
In the excerpt below, the text narrated the story of Izanagi and Izanami, the gods that
represent masculinity and femininity in the Shinto religion.
Nihon Shoki (excerpt)
The Story of Izanagi and Izanami (Book I)
“The Gods of Heaven addressed Izanagi no Mikoto and Izanami no Mikoto, saying: ‘There
is the country Toyo-ashi-hara-chi-i-wo-aki no midzu-ho. ‘Do ye proceed and bring it into
order.’ They then gave them the jewel-spear of Heaven. Hereupon the two Gods stood
on the floating bridge of Heaven, and plunging down the spear, sought for land. Then
upon stirring the ocean with it, and bringing it up again, the brine which dripped from the
spear-point coagulated and became an island, which was called Ono-goro-jima. The two
gods descended, dwelt in this island, and erected there an eight-fathom palace. They
also set up the pillar of Heaven.”
Then the male Deity asked the female Deity, saying:—“Is there anything formed in thy
body?” She answered and said:—“My body has a place completely formed, and called
the source of femineity.” The male god said:—“My body again has a place completely
formed, and called the source of masculinity. I desire to unite my source of masculinity to
thy source of femineity.” Having thus spoken, they prepared to go round the pillar of
Heaven, and made a promise, saying:—“Do thou, my younger sister, go round from the
left, while I will go round from the right.” Having done so, they went round separately and
met, when the female Deity spoke first, and said:—“How pretty! a lovely youth!” The male
Deity then answered and said:—“How pretty! a lovely maiden!” Finally they became
husband and wife.
Heian Period
This period is considered the classical age of Japanese literature. It refers to the
period when Kioto or Heian–jo (“City of Peace”) was the real seat of government. Its
literature reflected the pleasure-loving and effeminate but cultured and refined character
of the class of Japanese who produced it. It was largely the work of women; thus, literature
during this period was gentle and domestic.
The popular works produced during this period were:
a. Kokinshū (Collection of Ancient and Modern Poems), an anthology of the best poems
produced during the previous 150 years; the prose work such as Kokinshū’s preface was
written by Ki No Tsurayuki and which was the start of criticism becoming a distinct form
of Japanese literature; and
b. The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu, which is sometimes referred to as the first
modern novel. Here is an excerpt from the first chapter of the novel.
The Tale of Genji (excerpt)
Murasaki Shikibu
When the young Prince was three years old the Hakamagi took place. It was
celebrated with a pomp scarcely inferior to that which adorned the investiture of the first
Prince. In fact, all available treasures were exhausted on the occasion. And again the
public manifested its disapprobation. In the summer of the same year the Kiri-Tsubo-Kôyi
became ill, and wished to retire from the palace. The Emperor, however, who was
accustomed to see her indisposed, strove to induce her to remain. But her illness
increased day by day; and she had drooped and pined away until she was now but a
shadow of her former self. She made scarcely any response to the affectionate words
and expressions of tenderness which her Royal lover caressingly bestowed upon her.
Her eyes were half-closed: she lay like a fading flower in the last stage of exhaustion, and
she became so much enfeebled that her mother appeared before the Emperor and
entreated with tears that she might be allowed to leave. Distracted by his vain endeavors
to devise means to aid her, the Emperor at length ordered a Te-gruma to be in readiness
to convey her to her own home, but even then he went to her apartment and cried
despairingly: “Did not we vow that we would neither of us be either before or after the
other even in travelling the last long journey of life? And can you find it in your heart to
leave me now?” Sadly and tenderly looking up, she thus replied, with almost failing
breath:—
“Since my departure for this dark journey, Makes you so sad and lonely, Fain would I stay
though weak and weary, And live for your sake only!”
“Had I but known this before—“
She appeared to have much more to say, but was too weak to continue. Overpowered
with grief, the Emperor at one moment would fain accompany her himself, and at another
moment would have her remain to the end where she then was.
Kamakura-Muromachi Period
It was characterized by a constant state of warfare and turmoil, and the decline of
learning.
The important works of the period are the following:
