Rape Crisis Scotland
The pros and cons of providing
dedicated sexual violence services
A literature review
Shirley Henderson
May 2012
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Contents
Background 3
Supporting survivors in Scotland 6
What do survivors want? 11
The pros of dedicated sexual violence services 15
The cons of dedicated sexual violence services 24
Conclusions 26
References 29
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1. Background
1. About this review
Rape Crisis Scotland (RCS) commissioned this literature review in the context of
considering the extent to which the national RCS helpline is integrated with local
rape crisis centres in Scotland. This is connected to development work by RCS to
clearly specify how the organisation, national and locally, supports survivors of
sexual violence and how that might be quality assured. This is important for
ensuring high quality services but also for considering future funding in a context of
reduced resources and in which other organisations, generic and specialist, also
support survivors of sexual violence.
The review considers the pros and cons of providing dedicated sexual violence
services. It also summarises information about the nature of sexual violence; the
response in Scotland; and what survivors want.
For the purposes of this review ‘dedicated sexual violence services’ are defined as
‘services whose core function is to support adult survivors of any kind of sexual
violence. These encompass services for men and women aged over 16.’
For the purposes of the review, ‘specialist’ is defined, as in the Rape Crisis Best
Practice Model 2010 as ‘provision of services by staff and volunteers with the
appropriate skills and expertise to deliver tailored services to survivors with complex
needs’. This is consistent with the Council of Europe Minimum Service Standards
(Kelly and Dubois 2008).
Given the limitations of the budget and the extent of the literature, the review focuses
on the rape crisis response. It draws on academic research, mainly other literature
reviews, and some ‘grey’ literature including previous reports commissioned by RCS
including Scoping for services in West Lothian (2007); Development of a funding
model for rape crisis centres in Scotland (2008); Woman to woman: an oral history of
rape crisis in Scotland (2009); Rape Crisis Best Practice Model (2010); Scoping for
services in Highland (2010); and Scoping for male survivors (2011).
As noted above, the literature relating to all forms of sexual violence and to the
history and role of the international rape crisis movement is extensive. However, it
has not been possible to find any direct comparisons of the pros and cons of
dedicated services. The review which follows, therefore, pulls out key themes which
might be indicators for discussion and planning about how to proceed.
The literature uses various terms to describe those who have experienced sexual
violence including victim, survivor, victim-survivor. This review generally uses the
term ‘survivor’. When ‘victim’ or ‘victim-survivor’ are used it is because these are the
terms used in the original source.
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The review includes references to US research which include American-English
spellings. These are preserved. Outwith Scotland, domestic abuse is often referred
to as domestic violence.
2. About rape crisis in Scotland
Rape crisis in Scotland provides a ‘dedicated sexual violence service’. As a whole,
this includes direct services to survivors and their families, combined with longer-
term awareness-raising and preventative work.
RCS is the national office for rape crisis centres in Scotland. It runs a national
helpline which provides crisis support to female and male survivors across Scotland.
It also undertakes awareness-raising, training and strategic work for example with
the police, Crown Office and Scottish Government. A recent example of this is the
police referral protocol linked to the national helpline.
There are 13 autonomous member centres providing free confidential support and
information for women and girls who have experienced any form of sexual violence.
Some centres also support male survivors of sexual violence.
Local rape crisis centres vary but they generally provide both direct services to
survivors and education/prevention services including:
• Phone, email or letter support
• Face-to-face support
• Group support
• Information on the law, health and other issues
• Advocacy and accompaniment to clinics, police, court
• Referral to other agencies
• Assistance with reporting to the police
• Training and consultancy to local agencies
The core work is set out in the funding model and the core principles in the best
practice model.
3. The context for the review
RCS and local rape crisis centres have adopted national service standards. These
are currently being implemented by centres. A best practice model which underpins
the service standards is with local centes for consultation.
National service standards
In order to specify the nature and quality of support provided by rape crisis centres,
Rape Crisis England and Wales (RCEW) and RCS collaborated to produce National
Service Standards (RCNSS) which intend to recognise the specific needs of
survivors of sexual violence and benchmark the specialisms needed to provide
services. These are based on research and consultation and informed by survivors’
experience.
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The documents state the intention to set out what RCEW and RCS view as making
their services different from non-specialist support services because ‘much of what
distinguishes a rape crisis approach relates…to the value base and feminist ethos
which underpins all of our work. Values and principles are crucially important to our
model…’
The standards aim to assure that all survivors receive a quality service regardless of
their location and also provide necessary evidence to funders.
Best practice model
The best practice model for rape crisis centres prepared by Rape Crisis Network
Ireland (RCNI 2010) is an important document because it attempts to specify how
centres can operate to a model which reflects the needs of survivors. RCS wishes to
adopt this model in Scotland and the document is currently with member centres for
consultation. The model is evidence-based and sets out what survivors say is
important in support agencies. It states that survivors need to be ‘safe, secure and
have their dignity explicitly recognised’; that survivors need to be consulted and
participate in planning service delivery; and that within a trauma-based context the
following are important to survivors:
• ‘Being met with warmth and acceptance
• Being offered both emotional and practical support within a safe environment
• Having support from people who understand the impact of sexual violence
• Being validated – reactions to trauma are normal and not sick or maladaptive
• Being believed
• Understanding the need to maintain confidentiality
• Offering assistance in navigating the medical and legal processes
• Being able to regain some degree of control over the process
• Feeling that the choices are theirs’
The model is based on Council of Europe minimum standards (Kelly and Dubois
2008) which state that ‘the international knowledge and practice base suggests that
services provided by specialist NGOs are consistently the most responsive to
women who have suffered violence…They should be core service providers and key
partners in the development of more effective interventions by state agencies,
especially law enforcement and the legal system.’
The model sets out what makes rape crisis centres unique. These include three
guiding principles: feminism; human rights; and equality, and five operating
principles: gender-based power; reduced power analysis; survivor-centred approach;
trauma-based approach; and hold perpetrators accountable.
Rape crisis centres are the only specialist organisations in the UK and Ireland which
offer services to survivors of sexual violence from these guiding principles.
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2.
Supporting survivors in Scotland
The nature of sexual violence
Women and men of every age, race and religious background are raped and
sexually assaulted. Research with women survivors indicates that the perpetrator is
often someone they know. One study found that one in three women physically
abused by her male partner is also sexually abused (Koss et al 1994) and significant
numbers of women experience more than one type of violence (Greenan 2004).
Prevalence figures for sexual assaults against women range from one in four to one
in ten. However, there is thought to be significant under-reporting of sexual assault
and this may be due to lack of awareness among agency staff; the absence of
routine enquiry approaches; and/or women’s reluctance to disclose if they think they
may be disbelieved or harshly judged by agencies. This may be a particular issue
for women involved in prostitution or who use substances. Some women, whether
through choice or isolation or exclusion or other vulnerability, may never come to the
attention of an agency.
Recorded crime statistics indicate that men are also sexually violated. While
prevalence of sexual violence against adult men is much lower than for women, they
may also be less likely than women to report sexual violence. The fact that many
men do not report or seek support, can increase their isolation and trauma. As with
female survivors, it is important for men to know that abuse was not their fault, and
that sexual violence is a crime of power, control, and humiliation, not sexual
orientation or masculinity.
The 2010 Stern Review concludes that ‘around eight per cent of recorded rape
cases are rape of a man. Men find it very difficult to talk about what has happened to
them because of the common view that a man should be able to fight off an attacker.
Male victims ‘find it less easy to identify as victims and ask for help’.’
However, women and men who have experienced sexual violence are not a
homogenous group nor are their experiences, responses or needs the same.
A recent scoping exercise commissioned by Rape Crisis Scotland (Henderson 2011)
concluded that here is little Scottish research into the support needs of male
survivors of sexual violence, and that what exists is largely about male survivors of
childhood sexual abuse (CSA) which is the most common presenting issue for men.
However, the evidence suggests that male survivors of sexual violence generally
experience the same effects as female survivors: fear, anger, sadness, shame,
embarrassment, mistrust and symptoms associated with trauma. Men may
experience particular issues relating to masculinity, ‘victimhood’ and sexual identity
associated with the ‘meaning’ of such violence in the context of society’s
expectations of men as well as (possibly) their physiological reaction to the abuse.
Commercial sexual exploitation (CSE) includes a wide range of, often linked, sexual
activities which harm women and men and are described as sexual violence.
Women and men involved in prostitution, are often on low incomes, substance users
and victims of other forms of gender-based violence. One study reported that 70% of
women suffered rape in prostitution (Farley 2003); and another that 45% of those
involved in prostitution had reported childhood sexual abuse (Home Office 2004).
Those from ethnic minority groups, gypsy travellers; those who are trafficked into
sexual exploitation or who are disabled or in some way vulnerable may need types
and levels of intervention which are sensitive to their circumstances, culture or
ability.
Research into violence against women indicates that significant numbers of women
experience more than one type of violence (Greenan 2004). The more complex the
previous history, the more complex the response is likely to be. Given this, women
need a range of interventions and services.
Identifying these needs and providing for such diversity are major challenges which
need to be met by a multi-agency response, in which the rape crisis movement is
central.
Providing dedicated services
The historical development of dedicated services for women who have experienced
sexual violence is documented in a literature review commissioned by the Glasgow
Violence Against Women Partnership (Dutton and Cavanagh 2003). The
researchers make the important point that services provided by specialist agencies
in the voluntary sector, such as rape crisis, are based on a feminist understanding of
sexual violence and its relationship with other forms of violence against women while
