Focus Questions Revisited
1. What are symbols?
Symbols are arbitrarily selected representations of something with no direct connection to that which they
represent. Though sometimes used interchangeably, the terms symbol and sign do not describe the same
thing. Signs are consequences or indicators of something specific, which human beings cannot change by
their arbitrary actions or labels.
2. How is meaning established?
Because they are completely arbitrary, symbols have the potential for multiple meanings that are subject to
change. The meaning assigned to a symbol has been socially constructed and is contingent on the contexts
(physical, relational, situational) in which the symbol is used and other symbolic activity (verbal and
nonverbal), as well as on the medium used to transmit it.
3. How is communication cultural?
Culture influences communication, and communication creates and reinforces these cultural influences.
Each time someone communicates, he or she is taking knowledge for granted, doing what his or her culture
expects, and treating people in ways the culture acknowledges. Culture is accomplished, performed, and
enacted through communication.
4. How is communication relational?
All communication contains both a content (message) level and a relational level, which means that, as well
as conveying information, every message indicates how the sender of a message and the receiver of that
message are socially and personally related. Communication and relationships are intertwined.
Communication affects relationships, and relationships affect communication.
5. What are communication frames?
Communication frames are basic forms of knowledge that provide a definition of a scenario, either because
both people agree on the nature of the situation or because the cultural assumptions built into the interaction
and the previous relational context of talk give them a clue. A communication frame draws a boundary
around the conversation and pulls our attention toward certain things and away from others. Frames help
people understand their role in a conversation and what is expected of them. People also use framing
assumptions to make decisions about what symbols are used and how these symbols should be interpreted.
6. What does it mean to view communication as both representational and presentational?
Communication describes facts or conveys information (representation) while conveying the perspective or
worldview or slant of the person sending a message (presentation). Communication gives other people and
audiences a way of looking at the world that is based on how the source of a message prefers them to see it.
7. What does it mean to view communication as a transaction?
Viewing communication as a transaction means understanding that communication is more than just the
simple exchange of messages. Rather, communication involves the construction of shared meanings or
understandings between two (or more) individuals. Moreover, communication constitutes, or creates,
aspects of life such as relationships, culture, gender, and even reality.
1. What are the four principles of presentation organization and development?
The four principles of presentation organization and development are (1) points, (2) unity, (3) balance, and
(4) guidance. The points principle highlights the basic building blocks of an argument: main points and
subpoints. Unity is a principle of organization and development that maintains you should stay focused and
provide only information that supports your thesis and main points. Balance is a principle of organization
and development that maintains the points of the body must be relatively equal in scope and importance.
The amount of time you devote to the main points and to the development and support you provide for
them must be relatively equal. Guidance is a principle of organization and development that maintains a
speaker must guide and direct the audience throughout the entire presentation.
2. What organizational patterns can you use in the development of the body of a presentation?
An organizational pattern is an arrangement of the main points that best enables audience comprehension.
You should base the selection of an organizational pattern for your delivery on the topic, your purpose, and
the audience. Use the chronological pattern to arrange the main points according to their position in a time
sequence. Use the spatial pattern to arrange the main points according to their physical relation. Use a
causal pattern to organize the main points according to cause and effect. The question–answer pattern
involves posing questions an audience may have about a subject and then answering those questions in a
manner that favors your position. The topical pattern arranges support material according to specific
categories, groupings, or grounds. The problem–solution pattern divides the body by first addressing a
problem and then offering a solution to that problem. Finally, the elimination pattern involves offering a
series of solutions to a problem and then systematically eliminating each one until the only solution
remaining is the one you support.
3. What components must you include in an introduction to a presentation?
