Collaborating at Work
Complex documents (especially long reports, proposals, and manuals) are rarely produced by
one person working alone. For instance, an instruction manual for a medical device (such as a
cardiac pacemaker) is typically produced by a team of writers, engineers, graphic artists, editors,
reviewers, marketing personnel, and lawyers. Other team members might research, edit, and
proofread.
Teams also collaborate to create and deliver oral presentations, such as reports, proposals, and
training sessions.
Traditionally composed of people from one location, teams are increasingly distributed across
different job sites, time zones, and countries. The internet, via email, video conferencing, instant
messaging, blogs, and other communication tools, offers the primary means for distributed (or
virtual) teams to interact. In addition, tools, such as computer-supported cooperative work
(CSCW) software, and project management software, such as Microsoft Project, allow
distributed teams to collaborate. But whether the team is on-site or distributed, members have to
find ways of expressing their views persuasively, of accepting constructive criticism, and of
getting along and reaching agreement with others who hold different views.
Factors in successful teamwork
Teamwork is successful only when there is strong cooperation, a recognized team structure, and
clear communication. To manage a team project you need to (a) spell out the project goal, (b)
break the entire task down into manageable steps, (c) create a climate in which people work well
together, and (d) keep each phase of the project under control.
Operating in Groups
Many different interactions and lines of communication can occur within a group. Interactions
depend on such factors as group size, group member similarity, and the structure that has been
established by leadership and organizational culture. Experience shows that smaller groups can
more easily be cohesive, agree on goals, and work toward goals than larger groups. Groups also
have a better chance of being successful if group members come from similar backgrounds and
share values.
Another key factor in group communications is leadership. Leaders must foster collaboration
within their organizations. However, a 2011 study by ESI International found that “while the
majority of organizations value high-impact team collaboration, less than one out of three
organizations actually provides the proper framework for it” (ESI International,
Marketwire, http://www.marketwired.com/press-release/canadian-study-reveals-lack-team-
collaboration-despite-its-positive-business-impact-lse-inf-1581172.htm).
ESI International’s study concluded that
• “the majority of organizations, in fact, do not work collaboratively, despite the value that
they realize would come from better teamwork;
• rigid work structures . . . within companies . . . keep people from working together; and
• Organizations are not investing in the right mix of skills training needed to improve
collaboration on projects and initiatives” (Marketwire).
Effective Roles in Groups
Adapted from Barker et al. 1987.
Most groups, including collaborative writing teams, function best when certain key roles are
established and followed. Two main types of roles have been identified: task
roles and maintenance roles. Often, such roles are established informally.
Task Roles
In order to accomplish its set task, a group has to have its members successfully complete
various task roles. Some people play one or two of these roles exclusively, but most people slide
easily in and out of most of the roles.
• INITIATORS propose and define tasks; they also suggest solutions to problems or ways of
solving problems.
• INFORMATION SEEKERS notice where facts are needed, and they push the group to
find those facts. Information givers have the information at hand, or they know how to find
the needed information.
• OPINION SEEKERS actively canvass group members for their ideas and opinions
concerning a problem. Opinion givers volunteer input, respond readily when asked, and
help set the criteria for solving problems.
• SUMMARIZERS draw together various ideas, facts, and opinions into a coherent whole;
they review solutions, decisions, or problem-solving criteria. Often, the group’s elected
chair or appointed manager assumes this role.
Caution
Although group consensus is a worthwhile goal and although summarizers can play a very useful
role in achieving consensus, groups must be careful to not slide into groupthink, a state in which
group pressure prevents individuals from questioning or criticizing the group’s conclusions and
decisions.
Group Maintenance Roles
All successful groups need a supportive group climate in order for members to give their best
efforts. A positive group climate does not usually happen by accident; members have to
consciously perform some of the following roles in order to develop and sustain a good working
relationship.
• ENCOURAGERS help other group members feel accepted and valued. In particular, they
go out of their way to reward those group members who are shy about contributing to the
group’s tasks.
• FEELING EXPRESSERS encourage group members to state their feelings about the
group and those members’ roles in the group.
• HARMONIZERS help deal with unproductive conflict by removing the personal,
emotional aspects of disputes and concentrating on the objective issues. They recognize the
good points made by the respective disputants, and they help the “warring members”
recognize the merits of each other’s position.
• GATEKEEPERS try to draw quiet group members into the discussion so that the louder,
more aggressive group members do not dominate. When everyone contributes, two main
advantages result: (1) the group has a better chance of getting the ideas and information it
needs, and (2) group morale improves.
Overcoming Differences by Active Listening
One of the best ways to foster positive group climates is to listen actively to one’s colleagues.
Listening is a critical skill in getting along with co-workers, building relationships, and learning.
Many of us seem more inclined to speak, to say what’s on our minds, than to listen. We often
hope someone else will do the listening. Effective listening requires active involvement—instead
of merely passive reception, as explained in the guidelines below.
Guidelines for Active Listening
1. DON’T DICTATE. If you are leading the group, don’t express your view until everyone
else has had a chance.
2. BE RECEPTIVE. Take in different views and evaluate them later.
3. KEEP AN OPEN MIND. Judgment stops thought (Hayakawa 42). Reserve judgment until
everyone has had his or her say.
4. BE COURTEOUS. Don’t smirk, roll your eyes, whisper, or wisecrack.
5. SHOW GENUINE INTEREST. Non-verbal’s are vital (eye contact, nodding, smiling, and
leaning toward the speaker). Make it a point to remember everyone’s name.
6. HEAR THE SPEAKER OUT. Instead of “tuning out” a message you find disagreeable,
allow the speaker to continue without interruption (except to ask for clarification). Delay
your own questions, comments, and rebuttals until the speaker has finished.
7. FOCUS ON THE MESSAGE. Instead of thinking about what you want to say next, try to
get a clear understanding of the speaker’s position.
8. ASK FOR CLARIFICATION. If anything is unclear, say so: “Can you repeat that?” To
ensure accuracy, paraphrase the message: “So you’re saying that …”
9. BE AGREEABLE. Don’t turn the conversation into a contest, and don’t insist on having the
last word.
Source: Based on Armstrong 24; Bashein and Markus 37; Cooper 78–84; Dumont and Lannon 648–51; Pearce, Johnson, and Barker 28–
32.
Conflict within Groups
Interpersonal sources of collaborative conflict
In any group effort, conflict can arise. Members might fail to get along because of differences in
personality, working style, commitment, standards, or ability to take criticism. Some might
disagree about exactly what or how much the group should accomplish, who should do what, or
who should have the final say. Some might feel intimidated or hesitant to speak out. These
interpersonal problems actually can worsen when the group communicates exclusively via email.
Note
As students, we often cannot choose our project partners, just as we often have little say in
choosing work colleagues. Indeed, it’s rare to find a co-worker with whom you feel totally
compatible.
Generation gaps produce “natural” conflict
Members of collaborative writing groups are susceptible to the normal sources of human
discord—defensiveness, rivalry, mistrust, clashing roles, and contrasting personal needs. In
addition, today’s younger workers are more likely than previous generations to question
authority; these workers also want their opinions to be heard and their contributions to be valued.
They present a special challenge for “old–school” managers (Moses, “The Challenge”).
Misused power corrodes group effectiveness
A special form of unnecessary conflict ensues when persons in positions of power misuse their
organizational authority, their prestige, or their personal charisma to get their way. Mistrust and
sagging morale inevitably follow, often with negative effects on employee productivity and job
satisfaction.
Any collaborative effort stands the best chance of succeeding when each group member feels
included. A big mistake is to ignore personal differences, to assume everyone shares one
viewpoint, one communication style, and one approach to problem solving. Gender and cultural
differences in collaborative groups can create perceptions of inequality and can lead to serious
misunderstandings. Some sources of gender and cultural misunderstanding are presented in the
following In Brief box, which is then followed by guidelines for communicating in a global
team.
Managing and Resolving Group Conflict
Constructive conflict has many benefits
Well-managed conflict can lead to many positive outcomes. To start with, facing a conflict
situation shows that you care about the work you do and the people with whom you work.
Conflict that’s confronted within a supportive climate often leads to creation of new ideas, new
ways of solving problems. In the course of dealing with conflict, participants gain new
perspectives, and they often learn more about themselves and more about their colleagues.
In Brief Gender and Cultural Differences in Collaborative
Groups
Gender Differences
Research on ways men and women communicate in meetings indicates a definite gender gap.
Communication specialist Kathleen Kelley-Reardon offers this assessment of gender differences
in workplace communication:
Women and men operate according to communication rules for their gender, what experts call “gender codes.”
They learn, for example, to show gratitude, ask for help, take control, and express emotion, deference, and
commitment in different ways. (88–89)
Professor Kelley-Reardon describes specific elements of a female gender code: women are more
likely than men to take as much time as needed to explore an issue, build consensus and
relationships among members, use tact in expressing views, use care in choosing their words,
consider the listener’s feelings, speak softly, allow interruptions, make requests instead of giving
commands (“Could I have the report by Friday?” versus “Have this ready by Friday”), and
preface assertions in ways that avoid offending (“I don’t want to seem disagreeable here, but
…”).
One study of mixed-gender interaction among peers indicates that women tend to be more
