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“Educational Diplomacy: Confucius
Institutes at U. S. Universities”
By
Ashley T. Simmons
Submitted to:
Dr. Beth Goldstein
EPE 555 Comparative Education
I. Introduction
One fifth of the world’s population speaks Mandarin Chinese. Not only is it spoken in the
People’s Republic of China and Taiwan, it is spoken in diasporic Chinese communities globally1.
China is the second largest economy in the world and one of the largest trading partners of the
United States. “Opportunity, opportunity, opportunities not to be missed: international companies
are competing for those with Mandarin Chinese skills to be placed as executives for their China
ventures2.” Likewise, China boasts one of the world’s oldest and richest cultures as it has existed
over 5,000 years3.
Many universities promote foreign language learning and overseas study (i.e. study
abroad, service learning, internships, etc.) as a means to prepare students for the global economy.
These opportunities help students develop workforce ready skills, diversity of thought, and
multiculturalism. Furthermore, universities encourage global initiatives to connect with foreign
institutions for research, patents, philanthropy, and career opportunities for students. To
accomplish the goal of developing foreign initiatives in and with China, many colleges are
turning to Confucius Institutes (CIs) to deliver these resources. The mission of Confucius
Institutes is to “promote knowledge of Chinese language and culture4,” foster and enhance
multicultural awareness and understanding, support educational exchange, and promote trade and
investment between the United States and China.5
However, establishing Confucius Institutes at American colleges have not been greeted
by all with open arms. Strongest arguments against the creation of CIs are that they promote
China’s propaganda and soft power and interfere with academic freedom. The U. S. Congress
1 “Why Study Chinese?,” Boston University hps://www.bu.edu/wll/home/why-study-chinese/
2 “10 Reasons to Learn Mandarin Chinese,” hp://www.confuciuschineseacademy.co.uk/10-reasons-to-learn-
mandarin-chinese/
3 “Why Study Chinese?,” Boston University hps://www.bu.edu/will/home/why-study-chinese/
4 Augusta University Confucius institute, hp://www.augusta.edu/confucius/
5 Arizona State University Confucius institute, hp://confucius.arizona.edu/about-us/mission-statement
Simmons Page | 2
heard testimony from renowned political scientist Dr. Thomas Cusham that Confucius Institutes
foster “a better image of China, but Confucius Institutes have pressured universities into keeping
mum about Tibetan and Taiwanese freedom, as well as human rights abuses like Tiananmen
Square6.” A key example occurred at the 2014 European Association for Chinese Studies
Conference in Portugal. Xu Lin, Secretary General of the Confucius Institutes, ordered her staff
to remove pages of the program because they listed Taiwanese academic institutions7. She was
not the organizer or sponsor of the conference, but merely a guest of honor. When confronted by
a BBC News correspondent, Xu Lin demanded BBC News remove the segment of the interview
in which it was discussed8. BBC News continued and released the interview in its entirety.
In addition, some opponents feel China’s investment in U. S. higher education is a means
to undermine the American government and diminish academic freedom. The Canadian
Association of University Teachers requested universities currently hosting Confucius Institutes
terminate their agreements. In June 2014, the American Association of University Professors
made the same plea to American institutions of higher education citing Confucius Institutes
“function as an arm of the Chinese state and advance a state agenda in the recruitment and
control of academic staff, the choice of curriculum, and in the restriction of debate9.” These
incidents call attention to the undue influence of the Chinese government on Confucius Institutes
and academic freedom of host institutions.
6 “Doubts About the Integrity of Confucius institutes Lead to Moun0ng criticism.” Painter, Harry. Dec. 15, 2014.
hp://www.popecenter.org/2014/12/doubts-about-the-integrity-of-confucius-ins0tutes-lead-to-moun0ng-
cri0cism/.
7 Cai, Peter (2014), “Hard Times for China’s So= Power,” The Australian Business Review, available at:
hp://www.theaustralian.com.au/business/business-spectator/hard-0mes-for-chinas-so=-power/news-
story/f8470e915b0fcd400cdaab5d9e087e62.
8 Sudworth, John (2014), “Confucius institute: The Hard Side of China’s So= Power,” BBC News, available at:
hp://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-30567743.
9 American association of University Professors (2014), “On Partnerships with Foreign Governments: The Case of
Confucius Ins0tutes,” available at: hps://www.aaup.org/report/confucius-ins0tutes.
Simmons Page | 3
Established in 2004, there are 500 Confucius Institutes in 120 countries. The United
States has 109 CIs and 347 Confucius classrooms offering instruction in elementary, middle, and
high schools10. This paper will discuss the role, benefits, and shortcomings of Confucius
Institutes on U. S. college campuses. To provide more understanding, I interviewed two senior
international officers (SIO) at American universities to discuss their Confucius Institutes and
their impact. To ensure a more candid conversation, the administrators were promised
anonymity. The institutions described in this paper have been given the names Gamma Psi
University and Rho Epsilon University. Both campuses have active CIs and continue to receive
funding, resources, and staff from Hanban. Hanban is the Confucius Institute Headquarters
affiliated with the Chinese Ministry of Education. It provides Chinese language and cultural
teaching resources, encourages diversity, and builds a harmonious world11.
The main aim of China’s public diplomacy campaign is to project a positive image of
China and demonstrate to host countries that China’s intentions are friendly. According to N. J.
Cull, cultural diplomacy has been a part of China’s foreign policy for decades. It became
professional and has a larger scope in the 21st century. The modern day public diplomacy efforts
of China endeavor to provide clarity about its political system, demonstrate it is a good
international citizen, and can play by the rules12.
II. Confucius Institutes
A. Mission
The stated mission of Confucius Institutes is to support, strengthen, and enhance people’s
understanding and appreciation of Chinese language and culture13. It also seeks to further
10 hp://english.hanban.org/node_10971.htm
11 IBID
12 Cull, N. J. (2008), “Public Diplomacy: Taxonomies and Histories,” The ANNALS of the American Academy of
Political and Social Science, Vol. 616, No. 1, p. 31 – 54.
13 IBID
Simmons Page | 4
understanding and collaborations between the host country and China through programs, events,
and conferences14. Confucius Institutes grow and support Chinese related academic research and
artistic production15 and promote commercial and trade cooperation16.
To give background to the study of Confucius Institutes at American universities, I talked
with seven senior international officers at seven American colleges. To ensure I did not select an
institution based upon the discussion with the interviewee, I placed each school in a bag. Then, a
fellow student selected two from the bag.
The Confucius Institute at Gamma Psi University is a center for research, student
training, and public programming. It offers noncredit Chinese language and culture classes for
students, faculty, and staff. It coordinates several exchange programs between Gamma Psi
University and its Chinese partner university. Likewise, it administers the Chinese Proficiency
Test to language students. “The test is required for teachers to become certified in teaching
Chinese as a foreign language17.” Furthermore, this Confucius Institute works with university
students and local community associations to organize and/or sponsor cultural events such as
Ping Pong Competitions, art exhibits, and lectures. In addition, the CI at Gamma Psi University
offers Chinese language classes in 16 elementary and secondary schools and community colleges
throughout the state, sponsors a Chinese Bridge Summer Camp annually for middle and high
school students, and Chinese Speech competitions. This CI also offers Chinese business
etiquette, culture, and language classes to local businesses18.
The Confucius Institute Rho Epsilon University enhances exchange and cooperation
between the United States and China. This CI has a library with resources and materials
14 IBID
15 University of Arizona (2016), http://confucius.arizona.edu/about-us/mission-statement
16 University of Massachuses at Boston (2016),
hps://www.umb.edu/confucius/about/mission_statement_and_objec0ves.
17 IBID
18 IBID
Simmons Page | 5
(typically only available in China) and assists with hosting visiting Chinese delegations.
Additional programs include Chinese proficiency exams, art exhibits, tai chi classes, martial arts
classes, and music concerts. What is most unique about this Confucius Institute is that it hosts
seminars, workshops, and conferences for American and Chinese scholars and businesses to
engage in scientific research19. Rho Epsilon University’s CI has a large number of 11 patents.
This CI also offers noncredit and credit Chinese language courses, culture related lecture series,
and experiential Chinese cultural events such as a weekly Chinese Corner that promote Chinese
traditional culture20.
B. Benefits
Confucius Institutes not only deliver language course instruction and program activities,
they offer desperately needed funding. With significant cuts in higher education funding from the
Federal and State government, many institutions are turning to private entities for grants and
gifts21. “Current Chinese investment in U. S. higher education reconfigures a long history of
managing international diplomatic relations through the educational experiences of university
students22.” It does so by using intercultural exchange to “market oriented policies that favor
research and programs that generate profit23.” These policies support collaborations with the
Chinese government, which like the United States has promoted international higher education
as a tradable commodity.
Moreover, Confucius Institutes bring prestige, new opportunities, research collaborations,
and fee paying Chinese students. As federal and state revenues are diminishing, colleges are now
requiring faculty to publish and apply for external funding. Additionally, many institutions of
19 Rho Epsilon University website.
20 Interview with the Senior Interna0onal OKcer at Rho Epsilon University.
21 Stambach, Amy (2014), Confucius and Crisis in American Universities: Culture, Capital, and Diplomacy in U. S.
Public Higher Education, Routledge, New York, p. 23.
22 IBID, p. 36.
23 IBID p. 120
Simmons Page | 6
higher education are turning to international student recruitment to fill their coffers. However,
some have characterized Confucius Institutes as “Trojan horses” that have moved into an
American domain of higher education. Others have characterized CIs as a “constructive force for
preparing Americans to compete in a global economy gradually directed by China24.” “Three
aspects of education come together through Confucius Institutes: international diplomatic
relations, market oriented policies connected to higher education, and U. S. public universities
growing reliance on for profit sources of funding25.” Foreign relations have long been managed
through international educational exchange. Overseas study and international exchange have
financial implications for the universities, “chiefly stakeholders with financial interests in
connecting manufacturing and business to university research – fund and finance U. S. public
higher education26.” Confucius Institutes are channels in which local businesses, industries, and
government interact with and coordinate activities with Chinese businesses and educational
institutions. CIs provide a chance for American entities – business, educational, and government
– to access new markets and develop partnerships.
