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Running head: ADOLESCENT BULLYING AND SELF-ESTEEM
Adolescent Bullying and Self-Esteem: Singapore’s Context Lydia Neo Hui Qing
(20029403)
Cardiff Metropolitan University
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
Bachelor of Science in Psychological Studies (Honours)
Abstract
The present study focused on self-esteem of adolescents and sought to determine its
association with gender differences of bullying. It also examined bullying in Singapore’s
context. Bullying involves recurrent and intentional acts like teasing to injure another
while self-esteem refers to the general view of oneself and was proposed as a link with
bullying. Independent variables of this study are gender and bullying while the dependent
variable is self-esteem. 70 adolescents completed self-report questionnaires on bullying
and self-esteem. Results supported the hypotheses that males display higher self-esteem
than females and that a negative relationship exists between bullying intensity and
self-esteem. However, bullied males and females did not differ significantly in self-esteem.
This may indicate that males are affected more than females by bullying. Implications for
future research on bullying and self-esteem were considered as well.
Keywords: self-esteem, adolescents, gender differences, bullying
Chapter One: Introduction
Before measuring the association of gender differences and bullying on self-esteem, it is
crucial to be equipped with an understanding of the variables.
Bullying
With the intention of conducting investigations on bullying, researchers have to first
determine what exactly is bullying. According to Marini, Spear and Bombay (1999),
bullying is the manipulation of physical and emotional influence of deliberate harm
towards a person, thereby producing a destructive environment instilling anxiety, threat,
and apprehension in an individual. Bullying is manifested in different forms namely
physical, verbal, and relational aggression. Physical aggression implies the use of physical
strength towards an individual. Examples include pushing or kicking. Verbal bullying
involves the use of vocal assaults or threats of an individual’s character or status such as
name calling and hurling negative remarks. Relational aggression includes the use of
certain behaviours to induce harm on peer relationships by social rejection (Cullerton-Sen
& Crick, 2005). Self-Esteem
Self-esteem refers to an individual’s assessment and the extent to which one perceives
himself or herself as either optimistic or undesirable (Schaffer, 1996). Studies by Cooley
(1902) specified that an understanding of oneself is shaped in accordance with people’s
behaviour towards the self. Those who obtained positive views from others like a
compliment would have increased self-esteem. Onset of Bullying
Bullying has evolved into a universal issue in adolescence. Several public findings by Cho,
Hendrickson, and Mock (2009) recognized bullying as multifaceted, producing a series of
adverse societal, psychological and educational effects on adolescents. A justification for
the rise of bullying occurrences in adolescence could be because of numerous progressive
changes happening in this stage. Such changes include emotional ones like escalated
anxiety and decreased self-esteem (Green, 2007; Nansel et al., 2001; Pergolizzi et al.,
2007). Bullying manners were significant contributors to the development of school
violence (Bulach, Fulbright & Williams, 2003). This was evidenced by an incident in
1998, Georgia, where an adolescent succumbed to death due to school bullying. The
misfortune evoked awareness in the country where regulations on bullying were
authorized. Hence, it is no wonder bullying is acknowledged as a prominent kind of
violence in schools (Bulach et al., 2003; Olweus, 2003; Siris & Osterman, 2004; Vossekuil,
Fein, Reddy, Borum, & Modzeleski, 2002).The following describes the influence of
bullying on victims by highlighting prevalence rates, traits of victims and gender
differences in relation to self-esteem. Prevalence of Bullying Bullying is highly prevalent
among adolescents and differs among cultures. It results in detrimental consequences and
persists as a stumbling block in schools where adolescents struggle to handle distress from
bullying. National studies by Nansel et al (2001) demonstrated an approximate of
2,027,254 adolescents who identified themselves as victims of temperate bullying while
1,681,030 youths engaged in repeated bullying. A study by Olweus and Limber (1999)
stated that approximately 1.6 million of college adolescents in (USA) constituted bullied
victims. Additionally, Nansel et al. (2001) discovered that 30% of them were linked with
bullying, existing as a bully, victim or both. A separate statement by the U.S. Department
of Education revealed 77% of adolescents who were assessed were victims throughout
their entire education (Garbarino et al., 2003). With bullying on the rise, researchers have
thus conducted detailed examinations to evaluate such occurrences in adolescence
(Espelage & Asidao, 2003). Since such elevated incidences of bullying are a cause for
concern, it is vital to be mindful of different types of aggression and that bullying is just a
specific kind. Despite majority of studies on issues of adolescent bullying for bullies and
victims, only those pertaining to victims would be investigated. Attributes of Victims
This group of adolescents are known as receivers of violence inflicted by their aggressors.
Victims are more likely to appear timid, withdrawn and lack motor synchronization.
Besides being known to have minute body sizes and regarded as undesirable by peers, they
have low self-worth and display avoidance in social settings as a result of being bullied
(Bernstein & Watson, 1997).
Victims exist in two groups; submissive and highly aggressive or provocative victims
(Olweus, 1973, 1978). The submissive ones are portrayed as vulnerable and do not incite
bullies to further violence. Instead, they behave in ways that intensify the act. As
submissive victims do not protect themselves, they constantly experience peer refusal and
are deemed weak. On the contrary, provocative victims exhibit restlessness and seem more
irritable. They are likely to retaliate during assaults. Although all victims are highly
susceptible of negative appraisal, submissive victims are more affected by these critiques
and reproach themselves repeatedly. Highly aggressive victims portray nervous tendencies
and difficulties in focusing on tasks. Since this group of victims are often neglected, their
self-esteem is greatly affected.
Adolescents who suffered from childhood bullying may be at greater exposure to being
bullied in school (Chapell et al., 2004). Despite beliefs on bullying as uncommon in
schools, a study has disputed such claims, indicating bullying rates as frequent across some
colleges (Chapell et al., 2004). A study was held on 1,025 university students where 60%
claimed to have witnessed bullying and around 44% noticed a lecturer victimizing a
student (Chapell et al., 2004). This finding led Chapell and his team (2006) to further
investigations, where a clear link regarding bullying occurrences in infancy, adolescence or
both stages and chances of becoming victims in school was established. Their results are of
considerable importance as it can assist some medical practitioners in treatment effects as
they manage patients who might be bullied victims before. Bullying and Self-Esteem
The effects of bullying are well documented in countless reviews, from lingering health
issues to emotional distress and diminished self-esteem. Self-esteem is constituted by a
series of beliefs an individual has (Berk, 2009). The relationship of bullied victims and
self-esteem is clear. This is apparent in Houbre et al.’s (2006) report which revealed a lack
of self-worth in victims who were seemingly displeased with their physical appearance.
This negative self-evaluation may cause victims to isolate themselves from the public, and
this could result in mental health issues. Hence, it is significant to identify the connection
between bullying and how it leads to low self-esteem in victims.
Based on Hodges and Perry (1999), bullying serves as factors of self-esteem. A
correlational study on 8,249 Irish adolescents indicated links between bullying rates and
esteem, where bullies garnered least self-esteem (O’Moore & Kirkham, 2001). A separate
study by Rigby and Slee (1999) on adolescent bullying revealed 48.8% of males and
62.5% of females who lacked self-esteem suffered more negativity following an assault.
As a result, they had lesser peer involvement and faced refusal which impacts their
self-esteem.
In a subsequent finding, Houbre, Tarquinio and Lanfranchi (2010) questioned if low
self-esteem was a determinant and outcome of bullying. Their study supported the idea of
self-esteem as a predictor of bullying based on results that portrayed pessimistic beliefs as
the strongest indication of the attack. Additionally, examinations by them on repetitive
bullying and self-esteem discovered that lower self-esteem and frequency of attacks were
associated. Apparently, bullying can reduce a victim’s self-esteem. Despite victims
possessing a likelihood of being bullied, such attacks would decrease their self-esteem and
exacerbate anxiety as they accept their aggressor’s beliefs. Thus, these findings imply that
self-esteem can exist as an influence and cause of bullying.
Ample evidence regarding self-esteem in bullying occurrences has been displayed
(Andreou, 2000; Callaghan & Joseph, 1995; Ross, 1996). In Boulton and Underwood’s
(1992) research, 80% of adolescents claimed to experience more happiness and confidence
in life before bullying commenced. This was supported in Bosworth et al’s (1999) analysis
on 558 students of a certain academic level, where low degrees of self- esteem and higher
bullying rates were linked. Moreover, victims of bullying were recognized to have lower
self-esteem in comparison with bullies and those not implicated (Andreou, 2000; Bolton &
Underwood, 1992). Hence, this supported the idea that self-esteem served as an originator
and result of bullying (Graham and Juvonen, 1998).
Since a majority of adolescents are predisposed to intimidation by bullies, one possible
reason for those who are more confident and less anxious would be the low acceptance of
assaults in an attempt to protect themselves against harm, instead of victims who fail to
